CHAPTER

Machines
Machine is a device which helps us to do the work at one point and deliver it at another Chapter Objectives
point with a view of accomplishing the work easily. Ideal and Actual Machine
Basically, machines act as force multiplier, i.e., the net effort produced by the machine Lever
is much more than the effort applied. e.g., A jack is used to lift a bus or car, pulleys are Pulley
used to lift heavy loads. In all such examples, the effort is much less than the load. So, we Gears
can say that machines act as a force multiplier.
Simple machines can be classified (or categorised) into two major classes, one is lever
and other is inclined plane. Further it can be classified as shown below.
Machine
Lever Inclined plane

Pulley Gear Wheel and axle Wedge Screw

Classification of Machine

In this chapter, we will be exploring all the functions and terms related to machine,
there after lever and inclined plane as important types of simple machine will
be studied.
Terms Related to Machine
The terms related to machine are as follows
Load It is the resistive or opposing force against which the machine works. It is denoted
by L.
Effort It is the force applied on the machine to overcome the load. It is denoted by E.
Mechanical Advantage (MA) It is the ratio of the load to the effort. It is denoted by
MA.
L
It is expressed as, MA =
E
(i) If MA > 1 (i.e., L  E), then machine works as force multiplier.
(ii) If MA < 1 (i.e., L  E), then machine gains speed, i.e., machine can help us to
achieve greater movement of load by smaller movement of effort, e.g., The blades
of a scissors more longer with smaller movement of handles.
 44 All inone ICSE Physics Class X

(iii) If MA = 1 (i.e., L = E), then machine changes the Example 1. If a machine is used to lift a load of 50 N
direction of effort, i.e., machine can change the such that resistance due to friction and movable part of
direction of effort to a more convenient direction, machine is 15 N, then the total lifted load is 65 N, i.e.,
e.g., To lift the bucket from well, effort is applied (50 + 15) N. If the displacement is caused through 2 m,
on pulley in downward direction while bucket is then find actual and useful output.
pushed in upward direction. Sol. Actual output = total load  distance
Note Being a ratio of two like quantities (such as both load and = 65N  2m = 130 J
effort are some types of forces) MA has no unit. and useful output = useful work  distance
Velocity Ratio (VR) It is defined as the ratio of velocity = 50N  2m = 100 J
of the effort to the velocity of the load. It is denoted by Note In some problems or descriptions, only the term output is used.
VR. Hence, we will use this output as useful output not as actual output.
It is expressed as, Efficiency () It is defined as the ratio of work done(Woutput )
Velocity of effort ( vE ) by the machine to work done (Winput ) on the machine. It is
VR =
Velocity of load ( vL ) denoted by . It is expressed as
In terms of distance moved by a particular force, velocity Work done on the load Woutput
= =
ratio is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to Work done by the effort Winput
the corresponding distance moved by the load. But efficiency is usually expressed in percentage, so we
v d E /t d E
Q VR = E = = may write
W output
vL d L /t d L Efficiency,  =  100%
W input
Here, d L and d E are the distances moved in same time t
by the load and the effort, respectively.
Note Being a ratio of two like quantities, velocity ratio also has no
Ideal and Actual Machine
unit.
Ideal Machine or Perfect Machine
Work Input The work done on the machine by the Machine works on the principle of conservation of energy.
effort is called the work input (Winput or Wi ). If an effort The machine which converts are input work (effort) into
E causes a displacement d in its own direction, then
output work (load) without any wastage of work is called ideal
Work input = Effort  Displacement machine.
=E  d Work done (input) = Work done (output)
Work Output The work output (Woutput or Wo) can be Thus, an ideal machine can be defined as follows
classified into two ways A machine whose parts are weightless and frictionless such
(i) Actual Output The entire work done by the that whatever the energy given to it, is same as the energy
machine is known as actual output. produced by it, is called as an ideal machine. The efficiency of
If L is the total load (load lifted by the machine and an ideal machine is 100%. An ideal machine cannot be made
practically because some part of the input is wasted in moving
by resistance overcome) displaced through a
the parts of the machine and in overcoming the friction
distance d, then actual output will be treated as
between the various parts of a machine.
 total load (L)  distance (d)
Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)
i.e., Actual output = L  d.
The ratio between total load moved to the effort (E) applied is
(ii) Useful Output The useful work done by the called the ideal mechanical advantage. If L 0 is the total load
machine is termed as useful output. such that L is the useful load and l is the load due to friction and
If l is the useful load displaced through a distance movable parts of the machine, then
d, then useful output will be treated as L
IMA = 0 , where L = L + l
0
= useful load (l)  distance (d) E
i.e., Useful output = l  d. Note For an ideal machine, IMA = VR.
All inone Machines 45

Actual Machine For all practical machines, mechanical advantage is always

In an actual machine, the output energy is always less than less than velocity ratio,
the input energy indicating that there is some loss of energy i.e., MA < VR
during its operation, reasons of which are listed below Example 2. An effort of 10 kgf is applied on a
(i) The moving parts of the machine are neither machine through a distance of 100 cm, when a load of
weightless nor smooth or frictionless. 100 kgf moves through a distance of 5 cm.
(ii) Different parts of the machine are not perfectly rigid. Calculate the
(iii) The elastic materials (string) are not perfectly elastic. (i) velocity ratio
(ii) mechanical advantage
Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) (iii) efficiency of the machine
The ratio of useful load(L) moved to the effort (E) applied is Sol. Given, effort, E = 10 kgf , load, L = 100 kgf
called the actual mechanical advantage.
Distance moved by effort, dE = 100 cm
L
AMA = and distance moved by load, dL = 5 cm
E (i) Velocity Ratio (VR)
Distance through which the effort moves (dE )
Key Points =
Distance through which the load moves (dL )
(i) For all practical or actual machines, efficiency is less 100 cm
than 1 (i.e., < 1). = = 20
5 cm
(ii) If mechanical advantage is mentioned in a question, (ii) Mechanical Advantage (MA)
it means only the actual mechanical advantage but Load ( L) 100 kgf
= = = 10
not the ideal machine advantage. Effort(E) 10 kgf
(iii) A machine of  % efficient means % of the total (iii) Percentage efficiency,  =
MA
 100
energy supplied to the machine and remaining 10
VR
(100 − )% of the energy is lost to the surroundings. =  100 = 50%
20
(iv) The energy lost in overcoming the frictional force
between the moving parts of a machine, is the most Example 3. How is the mechanical advantage
common type of loss of energy in it. related with the velocity ratio for an actual machine?
State whether the efficiency of such a machine is
Relation between , MA and VR equal to 1, less than 1 or more than 1.
Sol. For a machine,
Consider a practical machine which overcomes a load L by work output L  dL
the application of an effort E in time t. Suppose the =
work input E  dE
displacement of effort be d E and the displacement of load L
be d L . E Mechanical Advantage (MA)
Now, we can write or = =
dE Velocity Ratio (VR)
Work input (Winput) dL
= Effort  Displacement of effort = E  d E For an actual machine,
work output < work input
Work output (Woutput) 
MA
 1
= Load  Displacement of load VR
= L  dL or MA < VR
MA
Woutput L  d L L d L L 1  Efficiency,  =  1
Efficiency,  = = = 
E  dE E dE =  dE
VR
Winput
E Thus, for an actual machine, efficiency will always be less
dL than 1.
As, we know that Example 4. A machine is operated by an effort of
dE 80 N acting downward and moving through a
MA = L and VR = downward displacement of 0.15 m. The load of mass
E dL 10 kg, is raised up by 10 cm. Calculate the MA, VR,
MA
 = or MA =   VR work input, useful work output and efficiency
VR (Take, g = 10 ms−2 ).
 46 All inone ICSE Physics Class X

Load (L) The two moments are always in opposite directions.

Sol. MA = (L = 10 kg = 10  10 = 100 N,
Effort (E) E = 80 N) In figure, the moment of load is anti-clockwise while the
100
= = 1.25
80
moment of effort is clockwise. Thus, we can write
d 0.15
VR = E = =1 Load  Load arm = Effort  Effort arm
dL 0.1
Work input = E  dE = 80  0.15 = 12 J This is also called principle of lever.
10 L BF
Useful work output = L  dL = 100  = 10 J or L  AF = E  BF or =
100 E AF
Output 10
Efficiency,  = = = 0.833 = 83.3% L Effort arm BF
Input 12  Mechanical Advantage (MA), = =
E Load arm AF
This relation is known as the law of levers.
CHECK POINT 01
From the above equation, it is clear that, if
1 Name a device that helps us to do the work at one point and (i) Effort arm = Load arm, MA = 1
deliver it to the another point.
(ii) Effort arm < Load arm, MA < 1
2 What happens when mechanical advantage (MA) becomes
equal to one? (iii) Effort arm > Load arm, MA > 1
3 Write an expression for calculating the efficiency of a machine. Note Mechanical advantage of a lever can be increased either by
increasing its effort arm or by decreasing its load arm.
4 “An ideal machine cannot be made practically.’’ Justify the
statement.
5 Give one example each of a machine which is used to
Types of Levers
(i) multiply force There are three types of levers
(ii) change direction of application of force. (i) Class I lever (ii) Class II lever (iii) Class III lever
6 Can a simple machine act as a force multiplier and a speed
multiplier at the same time ? Class I Lever
7 State whether in actual machines, the output energy is greater In this type of lever, the effort (E) and the load (L) are
or lesser than input energy. Give reason.
situated on either side of the fulcrum (F).
e.g., A pair of scissors, handle of water pump, a catapult and
Lever the nodding of the human head, etc.
A lever is a straight or bent rigid rod which can be turned or A F B
rotated about a fixed point called fulcrum. It is one of the E Effort arm L
Load arm
most common and simple machine.
Class I lever
Principle of a Lever Effort arm
Consider a lever (i.e., a straight rod) AB with balanced point MA of class I lever =
Load arm
at F (fulcrum for the lever). A load L acts at point A of the dE
lever and effort E acts at point B as shown in the diagrams. VR of class I lever =
d
L
Load arm Effort arm
A B Characteristics of a Class I Lever
L F E (i) Fulcrum lies in between the load and the effort.
Lever (ii) By moving the fulcrum towards the load, i.e., by
The perpendicular distance of the effort from the fulcrum decreasing load arm. Mechanical advantage can be
is called the effort arm i.e., BF. The perpendicular distance increased.
of the load from the fulcrum is called the load arm i.e., AF. (iii) For class I lever, the mechanical advantage and
For an ideal lever, it is assumed that the lever is weightless velocity ratio can have any value either greater than 1
and frictionless. A lever works on the principle of moment. or equal to 1 or less than 1.
In the equilibrium position of the lever, by the principle of e.g.,
moment, (i) The beam of a common balance (MA = 1)
moment of load about the fulcrum (ii) A crowbar (MA  1)
= moment of effort about the fulcrum (iii) A pair of scissors (MA  1)
All inone Machines 47

Examples of Class I Lever As, effort arm is always greater than the load arm, then MA
(i) A See-saw Two boys are playing with a see-saw as and VR are always more than 1.
shown in the figure. The lighter boy sits far away from E F E
the fulcrum as compared to the heavier boy such that
the moments of both of them are same.
L
L F
(i) (ii) Bottle opener
E
B
F A
Effort arm
F Load arm
L L
(iii) Class II Lever
E See-saw
(ii) A Crow-bar To have the less effort in lifting the load, Characteristics of a Class II Lever
longer crow-bar with more fulcrum is required. The (i) Load lies in between the effort and the fulcrum.
reason behind the less effort is increasing mechanical (ii) Mechanical advantage and velocity ratio are always
advantage with increasing the effort arm. more than one because the effort arm is always
longer than the load arm.
E (iii) If load is moving towards the fulcrum, then load
F arm decreases and consequently the mechanical
L Crow-bar advantage increases.
Another examples of class I lever are (iv) Class II levers always act as a force multiplier.
(i) a pair of scissors Examples of Class II Lever
(ii) pliers Some examples of class II lever are
(iii) a claw hammer (i) lemon squeezer (ii) nut cracker
(iv) human forearm (iii) hinged door
Example 5. A crow-bar of length 140 cm has its Example 6. The diagram below shows a lever in use.
fulcrum situated at a distance of 40 cm from the load.
Calculate the mechanical advantage of the crow-bar. 80 cm E
60 cm 20 cm
F
B
Sol. If fulcrum is situated in the middle of effort arm and load A
arm, it is a class I lever.
We have length of crow-bar = 140cm L=10 kgf

F
(i) To which class of lever does it belong?
40cm Effort arm E
(ii) If FA = 60 cm, AB = 20 cm, find its MA.
B
L 100 cm (iii) Find the value of effort (E).
140 cm
Sol. (i) From the given figure, it is clear that load lies in
Now,
between fulcrum (F) and effort (E).
Mechanical Advantage (MA) of crow-bar
Effort arm 100 5  Lever is of class II.
= = = = 2.5 cm
Load arm 40 2 (ii) From the above figure, MA of lever
and distance of fulcrum from the load = 40 cm Effort arm (FE) 80 cm 4
= = = = 1.33 cm
 Load arm = 40 cm Load arm (FA) 60 cm 3
and effort arm = length of crow-bar − load arm (iii) On balancing the moments, we can write
= 140 − 40 = 100 cm E  effort arm (FE) = L  load arm (FA)
 E  80 = L  60
Class II Lever
E = L  
60
In this type of lever, the load is situated between 
 80
fulcrum and effort, e.g., A bottle opener, a wheel barrow, a
3 30
paper cutter, raising the weight of the human body on = 10  = kgf = 7.5 kgf
toes, etc. 4 4
 48 All inone ICSE Physics Class X

Class III Lever Sol.(i) Principle of moment for the given lever can be applied as
In this type of lever, effort is situated between the load and Effort  AF = Load  BF
the fulcrum. As effort is situated between the load and the or E  (20) = (100) (AB + AF )
fulcrum, then MA and VR is always less than 1.  20 E = (100) (400) ...(i)
e.g., Sugar tongs, foot treadle, etc. (ii) Fire tongs class III lever has effort in between F and L.
E (iii) From Eq. (i), we can write
F 100  400
E= = 100  20 = 2000 N
dL 20
E L Here, effort arm, FA = 20 cm
dE
Load arm, BF = FA + AB = 20 cm + 380 cm = 400 cm
Effort arm 20 cm 1
L F  MA = = = = 0.05
Load arm 400 cm 20
(i) (ii) Sugar tongs

E CHECK POINT 02
F A B
1 For a lever, if effort arm becomes equal to load arm, then what
F effect can be seen in the value of mechanical advantage (MA)?
Load arm
Effort arm L 2 State any two characteristics of lever of class I?
(iii) Class III lever 3 Fill up: a scissors is a ……… multiplier.
4 Give one example each of class I lever, where the mechanical
Characteristics of Class III Lever advantage is
(i) Effort lies in between the fulcrum and the load. (i) equal to 1 (ii) more than 1.
(ii) Mechanical advantage and velocity ratio are always 5 Which class of a lever always act as a force multiplier?
less than one, because the effort arm is always 6 Give an example of lever of third order.
smaller than the load arm. 7 Which type of levers have mechanical advantage always less
(iii) These class III levers are called speed multiplier as than 1? Give reason. Why are they then used?
the load moves through a larger distance as
compared to the effort. Pulley
Examples of Class III Lever Pulley is a wheel on an axle that is designed to support
Some examples of class III levers are movement and change the direction of a cable or belt along
(i) arms used to lift weight (ii) baseball bat its circumference. A set of pulleys assembled so that they
rotate independently on the same axle to form a block is
(iii) broom (iv) doors called pulley system.
(v) fishing rod (vi) sling Support
(vii) tweesers (viii) stapler
Example 7. The diagram below shows the use of
Axle
a lever Disc (metallic/wooden)
380 cm Grooved rim
Effort (E)
Fixed B Pulley
F A
Single Fixed Pulley
Load
20 cm A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed
L=100 N
in position is called single fixed pulley.
(i) State the principle of moments as applied to the Mechanical Advantage
above lever. Load T T
T
(ii) Give an example of this class of lever. (MA) = = =1
(iii) If FA = 20 cm, AB = 380 cm, then calculate the Effort T E
mechanical advantage and minimum effort ( Q load, L = T , effort, E = T , if pulley is L
required to lift the load. not rotating)
Single fixed pulley
All inone Machines 49

dE d MA 80
Velocity Ratio(VR) = = =1  80% =
4  MA =  4 = 3.2
dL d 100
(b) Load, L = 500 N, MA = 3.2 and effort, E = ?
(d E = d and d L = d) L L 500 N
MA MA =  E= = = 156.25 N
Efficiency () = = 1 or 100% E MA 3.2
VR Difference between a Single Fixed Pulley
Single Movable Pulley and a Single Movable Pulley
A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position is Single Fixed Pulley Single Movable Pulley
called a movable pulley. It is fixed to a rigid support. It is not fixed to a rigid support.
Its Ideal Mechanical Advantage Its Ideal Mechanical Advantage
E
(IMA) is 1. (IMA) is 2.
T T
Its Velocity Ratio (VR) is 1. Its Velocity Ratio (VR) is 2.
The weight of pulley itself does The weight of pulley itself reduces
not affect its mechanical its mechanical advantage.
advantage.
L
It is used to change the direction It is used as a force multiplier.
Single movable pulley of effort from upwards to
Load is balanced by downwards.
T +T =2 T (Q Load = 2 T ) Load moves in a direction Load moves in the direction of
Load 2T
Mechanical Advantage (MA) = = =2 opposite to that of effort. effort.
Effort T
(Q L = T + T = 2T and E = T ) Combination of Pulleys
d E 2d
Velocity Ratio(VR) = = = 2 (Qd = 2d and d = d) The combination can be made in two ways
E L
dL d (i) Using one fixed pulley and several movable pulleys.
MA 2 (ii) Using several fixed pulleys in two blocks known as
Efficiency () =  100 =  100 = 100% or 1
VR 2 block and tackle system.

Example 8. Using One Fixed Pulley and Other

(i) Name the type of single pulley that can act as a Movable Pulleys
force multiplier. Draw a labelled diagram of the Rigid support
above named pulley. If there are n movable pulleys with
(ii) A pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4 and an one fixed pulley, then the mechanical
efficiency 80%. Calculate advantage of this system is
D
(a) the mechanical advantage of the system . MA = 2n T3 T3
(b) the effort required to raise a load of 500 N by the T3
So, mechanical advantage of system C
E
system. which has one fixed pulley
Sol. (i) Single movable pulley acts as a force multiplier. 3 and
three movable pulleys = 2 = 8 T2 T2
B
If there are n movable pulleys
Effort, E
connected to a fixed pulley, then T1
T T velocity ratio of this system is T1
A
P Movable VR = 2n
pulley
So, velocity ratio of system which Load
Load, L has one fixed pulley and three L
L= 500 N movable pulleys = 23 = 8
(ii) Given, velocity ratio of a pulley system (VR) = 4 Efficiency of this combination is
Efficiency of the pulley system () = 90%
MA 2n
We know that, = = = 1 or 100%
Mechanical Advantage (MA) VR 2 n
(a) Efficiency,  =
Velocity Ratio (VR)
 50 All inone ICSE Physics Class X

Example 9. Diagram given in below is representing Example 10. The diagram below
a pulley system having a velocity ratio 3 and an shows a system of 5 pulleys. Upper
efficiency of 80%. Calculate the mechanical (i) Copy the diagram and complete it block
advantage and efficiency. by drawing strings around the
pulleys. Mark the position of load
and effort.
(ii) If the load is raised by 2 m, through
Effort what distance will the effort move?
Sol. (i) Complete diagram is shown in the
given figure
Lower
block

Load
Sol. Since, Mechanical Advantage, E
Load 80 Effort
MA = = VR   = 3  = 2.4 T
Effort 100
load 300 T
or efficiency = = = 125 N
2.4 2.4 TT

Using Several Fixed Pulleys in Two T

Blocks (Block and Tackle System)

In this system, two blocks of pulleys are used, while usually Load
upper block is fixed and the lower block is movable. If the
total number of pulleys used in both the blocks is n and the (ii) In block and tackle system, if the load moves through a
effort is being applied in the downward direction. distance d, the effort moves through a distance nd,
where, n is the total number of pulleys in both blocks.
In this case,
Here, as the load is raised by 2 m, the effort will move
Load = nT and Effort = T through a distance of 5  2 = 10 m.
Mechanical Advantage (MA)
Example 11. A pulley system has a velocity ratio 4
Load
= =n and an efficiency of 70%. Draw a labelled diagram of
Effort this pulley system. Calculate the mechanical
In a block and tackle system, if the advantage of the system and the value of the effort
load moves up through a distance d, required to raise a load of 400 N.
the effort end moves through a T
Sol. Labelled diagram of the pulley system is shown in figure.
Given, velocity Ratio (VR) = 4, efficiency,  = 70%,
distance nd because each section of T
the string supporting the load is load, L = 300 N
T T
(E = 19.6 N)
loosened by a length d, i.e., if d L = d, T
then d E = nd
 Velocity ratio = nd = n
Effort
d
Effect of Weight of Pulleys on MA,
VR and 
But, if total weight of pulleys in the (L = 10 kgf or 98 N)
lower block be w, Load
Block and tackle for five
L + w = nT , E = T pulleys Mechanical Advantage (MA)= ? and effort, E = ?
L = nT − w, E = T Load
MA = Effort= VR  
w
Mechanical Advantage (MA) = n − , VR = n 70
E = 4 = 2.8
MA (n − w /E ) w
Efficiency,  = =1− 100
VR = n nE and effort =
load 500
= = 178.57
2.8 2.8
All inone Machines 51

Example 12. A block and tackle system has the

velocity ratio 4, labelled diagram of the system
indicating the point of application and the directions
of load and effort is given below. A man can exert a
pull of 500 N. What is the maximum load he can raise
with this pulley system if its efficiency is 80%? Driven wheel
(Load)
Driving wheel
(Effort)

(i) The number of teeth on a sheel depends on

T its circumference and hence on it’s radius i.e.,
ND r
T
Effort = o.
Nd rd
T T
(ii) Gear ratio is the ratio of number of teeth on the
driving wheel (ND ) to that on the driven wheel (N d )
N
i.e., Gear ratio = D
Nd
Note The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is given by,
l
MA = , where l = length of inclined plane
Sol. Given, VR = 4 h
4 and h = height of inclined plane.
Efficiency,  = 80%=
5
MA = VR   CHECK POINT 03
4 16
MA = 4  = = 3.2
5 5 1 Name a machine which can be used to change the direction of
L force applied.
But, MA =
E 2 Define the term ‘‘single fixed pulley’’. State its mechanical
L advantage and velocity ratio.
 3.2 =
500 N 3 Name the type of single pulley that has a mechanical advantage
greater than one.
 L = 500  3.2
4 Why do we use single fixed pulley?
 L = 1600 N
5 What is the value of ideal mechanical advantage of a single
The maximum load can be raised is 1600 N. fixed pulley?
6 In the case of a single movable pulley, state whether the load
Gears moves in the direction of effort or opposite to effort ?
Gears are a set of toothed wheels arranged together in a 7 How many combination of pulleys are there? Name them.
machine to vary the speed of rotation and/or to transmit 8 Define gear ratio.
power from one part to another. The gear wheel closer to
the source of power is called driving gear while the gear
wheel which receives motion from the driver is called a
driven gear.
52 All inone ICSE Physics Class X

SUMMARY
■
Machine is a device which helps us to do the work at one point and deliver it at another point with a view of accomplishing the work
easily.

Machine
Lever Inclined plane

Pulley Gear Wheel and axle Wedge Screw

Classification of Machine
■
Functions performed by machines are
(i) as a force multiplies
(ii) to increase or decrease speed
(iii) in changing, the direction of effort
(iv) to change the point of application of effort.
■
Load It is the resistive or opposing force against which the machine does the work. It is denoted by L.
■
Effort It is the force applied on the machine to overcome the load. It is denoted by E.
■
Mechanical Advantage (MA) It is the ratio of the load to the effort. It is denoted by MA.
■
Efficiency () It is the ratio of the work done on the load by the machine to the work put into the machine by the effort.
■
Velocity Ratio (VR) It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort dE to the corresponding distance moved by the load dL.
■
For an ideal machine,  is 100%.
■
In actual machine, the output energy is always less than the input energy.
MA
■
Relation between , MA and VR If  is expressed as efficiency percentage, then  =  100
VR
■
A lever is a straight or bent rod which can be turned or rotated about a fixed point called fulcrum.
■
In class I lever, the effort (E) and the resistance (load, L) are situated on either side of the fulcrum (F ) . e.g., A pair of scissors, handle of
water pump, a catapult and the nodding of the human head, etc.
■
In class II lever, the load is situated between fulcrum and effort. e.g., A bottle opener, a wheel barrow, a paper cutter, raising the weight
of the human body on toes, etc.
■
In class III lever, effort is situated between the load and the fulcrum. e.g., Sugar tongs, foot treadle, etc.
■
Three classes of levers are found in the human body (i) class I lever in the action of nodding of head (ii) class II lever in raising the
weight of the body on toes (iii) class III lever in raising a load by forearm.
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Pulley is a wheel on an axle that is designed to support movement and change the direction of a cable or belt along its circumference. A
set of pulleys assembled so that, they rotate independently on the same axle to form a block is called
pulley system.
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A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed in position is called single fixed pulley. For this pulley MA = 1, VR = 1,  = 100%.
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A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position is called a movable pulley.
For this pulley MA = 2, VR = 2,  = 100%.
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For combination of pulleys using one fixed pulley and other movable pulley MA = 2n, VR = 2n,  = 100%.
W W
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For block and tackle system MA = n, VR = n with weight of pulley, MA = n − , VR = n,  = 1 − .
E nE
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A gear is a wheel with teeth around its rim. A gear wheel closer to the source of power is called the driver (or the driving gear), while
the gear wheel which receives motion from the driver is called the driven gear.
For this,
N N r n N
gear ratio = A , gain in torque = B = B and gain in speed = B = A
NB NA rA nA N B
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The inclined plane is a sloping surface that behaves like a simple machine whose mechanical advantage is always greater than 1.
1 , VR = l
MA =
sin h