Color Diagrams in PDF

Principles of
Electronic
Materials and
Devices
Second Edition

S. O. Kasap

© 2002 McGraw-Hill

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 -x
,x A

vdx
Jx

Fig. 2.1: Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an

applied electric field. Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in
the x-direction.(Ex is the electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 -N

K
,N

Vibrating Cu+ ions 8

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.2 (a): A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about
randomly in a metal (with a mean speed K) being frequently and
randomly scattered by by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence
of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction. (b): In the
presence of an applied field, -N, there is a net drift along the N-direction.
This net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random
motion of the electron. After many scattering events the electron has
been displaced by a net distance, ,N, from its initial position toward the
positive terminal
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Velocity gained along x
Present time
vx1­ux1
Last collision

Electron 1
time
t1 Free time t
vx1­ux1

Electron 2
time
t2 t
vx1­ux1

Electron 3
time
t3 t

Fig. 2.3: Velocity gained in the x-direction at time t from the

electric field (Ex) for three electrons. There will be N electrons to
consider in the metal.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 S = F a2

J
l=u a

Electron

Fig. 2.4: Scattering of an electron from the thermal vibrations of the

atoms. The electron travels a mean distance l = u J between
collisions. Since the scattering cross sectional area is S, in the volume
Slthere must be at least one scatterer, Ns(SuJ) = 1.
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 Strained region by impurity exerts a
scattering force F = - d(PE) /dx

τI

τΤ

Fig. 2.5: Two different types of scattering processes involving scattering

from impurities alone and thermal vibrations alone.
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 2000
Inconel-825
NiCr Heating Wire
1000
Iron
Tungsten
Monel-400
Resistivity (nW m)

rµT

Tin
100 Platinum
Copper
Nickel

Silver

10
100 1000 10000
Temperature (K)

Fig. 2.6: The resistivity of various metals as a function of temperature

above 0 °C. Tin melts at 505 K whereas nickel and iron go through a
magnetic to non-magnetic (Curie) transformations at about 627 K and
1043 K respectively. The theoretical behavior (r ~ T) is shown for
reference.
[Data selectively extracted from various sources including sections in
Metals Handbook, 10th Edition, Volumes 2 and 3 (ASM, Metals
Park, Ohio, 1991)]
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 100
ρ∝T
10

1
Resistivity (nΩ m)

ρ (nΩ m)
0.1 3.5
3 ρ∝T
ρ ∝ T5 2.5
0.01
2

0.001
1.5 ρ ∝ T5
1
0.5 ρ = ρR
ρ = ρR
0.0001 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
T (K)
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Temperature (K)

Fig.2.7: The resistivity of copper from lowest to highest temperatures

(near melting temperature, 1358 K) on a log-log plot. Above about
100 K, ρ ∝ T, whereas at low temperatures, ρ ∝ T 5 and at the
lowest temperatures ρ approaches the residual resistivity ρR . The
inset shows the ρ vs. T behavior below 100 K on a linear plot ( ρR
is too small on this scale).
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 60
Cu-3.32%Ni

Cu-2.16%Ni
Resistivity (n9 m)

40
HCW Cu-1.12%Ni (Deformed)
Cu-1.12%Ni

20 HI 100%Cu (Deformed)
100%Cu (Annealed)

HT
0
0 100 200 300
Temperature (K)

Fig. 2.8: Typical temperature dependence of the resistivity of

annealed and cold worked (deformed) copper containing various
amount of Ni in atomic percentage (data adapted from J.O. Linde,
Ann. Pkysik, 5, 219 (1932)).

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 40 W

0.333 A

120 V

Fig. 2.9: Power radiated from a light bulb at 2408 °C is equal to the
electrical power dissipated in the filament.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 1500
1400 UIDUS
LIQ

Temperature (°C)
1300
LIQUID PHASE
IDUS
L
S SO
1200 L+
1100
SOLID SOLUTION
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100
100% Cu at.% Ni 100% Ni
(a)

600
Cu-Ni Alloys
500
Resistivity (n9m)

400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
100% Cu at.% Ni 100% Ni
(b)

Fig. 2.10(a) Phase diagram of the Cu-Ni alloy system. Above the liquidus
line only the liquid phase exists. In the L + S region, the liquid (L) and
solid (S) phases coexist whereas below the solidus line, only the solid
phase (a solid solution) exists. (b) The resistivity of the Cu-Ni alloy as a
function of Ni content (at.%) at room temperature. [Data extracted from
Metals Handbook-10th Edition, Vols 2 and 3, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio,
1991 and Constitution of Binary Alloys, M. Hansen and K. Anderko,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958]
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 160
140 Quenched
120
Resistivity (n9 m)

100
80
Annealed
60
40
20 Cu3 Au CuAu
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Composition (at.% Au)

Fig. 2.11: Electrical resistivity vs. composition at room temperature in

Cu-Au alloys. The quenched sample (dashed curve) is obtained by
quenching the liquid and has the Cu and Au atoms randomly mixed.
The resistivity obeys the Nordheim rule. On the other hand, when the
quenched sample is annealed or the liquid slowly cooled (solid curve),
certain compositions (Cu3Au and CuAu) result in an ordered
crystalline structure in which Cu and Au atoms are positioned in an
ordered fashion in the crystal and the scattering effect is reduced.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Continuous phase
L Jy Dispersed phase y
A A
x
Jx
Jx
L

L
= > A

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.12: The effective resistivity of a material having a layered

structure. (a) Along a direction perpendicular to the layers. (b) Along
a direction parallel to the plane of the layers. (c) Material with a
dispersed phase in a continuous matrix.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 L

A
=
(a)
>

= >
A/N
(b)
L

Fig. 2.13: (a) A two phase solid. (b) A thin fiber cut out from the
solid.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 TA (a) TB
Temperature Liquid, L One phase
a+L b+L b
TE a region: b
Two phase region only
a+b
T1

100%A X (% B) 100%B
X1 X2

(b)
Resistivity

Mixture Rule
Nordheim's Rule rB
rA

0 X1 Composition X (% B) X2 100%B

Fig. 2.14 (a) The phase diagram for a binary, eutectic forming alloy.
(b) The resistivity vs composition for the binary alloy.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Jy = 0
Bz
y
VH V
+ + + + +
e-H x
Jx z
-x Jx
vdx
-H
evdxBz
A
Bz
V
+

Fig. 2.15: Illustration of the Hall effect. The z-direction is out from the
plane of paper. The externally applied magnetic field is along the z-
direction.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 q = +e q = ­e
L L

* *
*
. = qL´
´* . = qL´
´*

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.16 A moving charge experiences a Lorentz force in a magnetic

field. (a) A positive charge moving in the x direction experiences a
force downwards. (b) A negative charge moving in the -x direction
also experiences a force downwards.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Wattmeter
IL IL

Load
Source VL RL

VL
IL IL
C C
V VH
Bz

w
R Ix = VL/R
VL

Fig. 2.17: Wattmeter based on the Hall effect. Load voltage and load
current have L as subscript. C denotes the current coils. for setting
up a magnetic field through the Hall effect sample (semiconductor)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 HOT COLD
HEAT

Electron Gas Vibrating Cu+ ions

Fig. 2.18: Thermal conduction in a metal involves transferring

energy from the hot region to the cold region by conduction
electrons. More energetic electrons (shown with longer velocity
vectors) from the hotter regions arrive at cooler regions and collide
there with lattice vibrations and transfer their energy. Lengths of
arrowed lines on atoms represent the magnitudes of atomic
vibrations.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 δT
HOT COLD
dQ
dt
HEAT A

δx

Fig. 2.19: Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end. Consider the
rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, across a thin section δ x of the rod. The rate
of heat flow is proportional to the temperature gradient δ T/δ x and the
cross sectional area A.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 450
Ag
400
Thermal conductivity, k (W K-1 m-1) Ag-3Cu Cu
Ag-20Cu
300 k
= 6+WFL Au
s
Al
200
Be
W
Mg
Mo
100 Ni Brass (Cu-30Zn)
Bronze (95Cu-5Sn)
Steel (1080)
Pd-40Ag
0 Hg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
6 -1 -1
Electrical conductivity, s, 10 W m

Fig. 2.20: Thermal conductivity, k vs. electrical conductivity s for

various metals (elements and alloys) at 20 °C. The solid line
represents the WFL law with +WFL » 2.44´108 W W K-2.
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 50000
Thermal conductivity, k (W K-1 m-1)

10000 Copper

1000 Aluminum

100 Brass (70Cu-30Zn)

Al-14%Mg

10
1 10 100 1000
Temperature (K)

Fig. 2.21: Thermal conductivity vs. temperature for two pure metals
(Cu and Al) and two alloys (brass and Al-14%Mg). Data extracted from
Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Vol. 1: Thermal Conductivity,
Metallic Elements and Alloys, Y.S. Touloukian et. al (Plenum, New
York, 1970).
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 Equilibrium

Hot Cold

Energetic atomic vibrations

Fig. 2.22: Conduction of heat in insulators involves the generation

and propogation of atomic vibrations through the bonds that couple
the atoms. (An intuitive figure.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 DT Q¢ = DT/q
Hot DT
Cold
Q¢ Q¢ Q¢
A
q
L
= >

Fig. 2.23: Conduction of heat through a component in (a) can be

modeled as a thermal resistance q shown in (b) where Q¢ = DT/q.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
Many ceramics
Alumina Superconductors

Diamond Inorganic Glasses

Mica Metals
Polypropylene
Degenerately
PVDF Soda silica glass
PET Borosilicate Pure SnO2 Doped Si Alloys
Intrinsic Si
SiO2 Amorphous Te Graphite NiCr Ag
As2Se3 Intrinsic GaAs

10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012
Conductivity (9m)-1

Fig. 2.24 Range of conductivites exhibited by various materials

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 -

A­
hole

= > ?

Fig. 2.25 (a) Thermal vibrations of the atoms rupture a bond and release
a free electron into the crystal. A hole is left in the broken bond which
has an effective positive charge. (b) An electron in a neighboring bond
can jump and repair this bond and thereby create a hole in its original
site; the hole has been displaced. (c) When a field is applied both holes
and electrons contribute to electrical conduction.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Jy = 0 Bz
y
+ +
e-y -y x
Jx Jx z
-x
vhx vex
evhxBz e-y evexBz

+ + + + A
Bz

V
Fig. 2.26: Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a
semiconductor where there are both electrons and holes. The
magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both electrons
and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor
and consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities
and concentrations of electrons and holes.(E is the electric field.)
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 - -
Vacancy aids the diffusion of positive ion
O2­
Si4+

Na+

Anion vacancy
Interstitial cation diffuses
acts as a donor
= >

Fig. 2.27:Possible contributions to the conductivity of ceramic and

glass insulators (a) Possible mobile charges in a ceramic (b) A Na+
ion in the glass structure diffuses and therefore drifts in the
direction of the field. (E is the electric field.)
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 1´10-1 24%Na2O-76%SiO2
As3.0Te3.0Si1.2Ge1.0 glass
1´10-3
Pyrex
Conductivity 1/(Wm)

1´10-5

1´10-7
12%Na2O-88%SiO2
1´10-9
PVAc
SiO2
1´10-11

1´10-13 PVC

1´10-15
1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4
103/6 (1/K)

Fig. 2.28: Conductivity vs reciprocal temperature for various low

conductivity solids. (PVC = Polyvinyl chloride; PVAc = Polyvinyl
acetate.) Data selectively combined from numerous sources.
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 *2

(a) Total current into (b) Current in hollow outer

*1
paper is 1 cylinder is 1/2
*2

*1
*2

*1 (c) Current in inner

cylinder is 1/2

Fig. 2.29: Illustration of the skin effect. A hypothetical cut produces a

hollow outer cylinder and a solid inner cylinder. Cut is placed where it
would give equal current in each section. The two sections are in parallel
so that the currents in (b) and (c) sum to that in (a).
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 ML

@ = Skin depth

2=

Fig. 2.30: At high frequencies, the core region exhibits more

inductive impedance than the surface region, and the current flows
in the surface region of a conductor defined approximately by the
skin depth, @.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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 Grain 1
Grain 2

Grain
Boundary
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.31: Grain boundaries cause scattering of the electron and

therefore add to the resistivity by Matthiessen's rule. For a very
grainy solid, the electron is scattered from grain boundary to grain
boundary and the mean free path is approximately equal to the
mean grain diameter.
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 Jx
D

Fig. 2.32: Conduction in thin films may be controlled by scattering

from the surfaces.
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