Color Diagrams in PDF

Principles of
Electronic
Materials and
Devices
Second Edition

S. O. Kasap

© 2002 McGraw-Hill

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 -y
y
Velocity = c

Direction
of Propagation
x x

z Bz

Fig. 3.1: The classical view of light as an electromagnetic wave. An

electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time varying
electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of propagation.
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 Constructive interference
P

S1
Destructive interference
S2

Photographic film showing

Young's fringes

Fig.3.2: Schematic illustration of Young's double slit experiment.

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 Photographic film Photographic film

Scattered X-rays Scattered X-rays

Single crystal Powdered crystal or
polycrystalline material
X-rays with all X-rays with single
wavelengths wavelength
= >
Detector
X-rays 1 1
2 2

G A G

d dsinG dsinG Atomic planes

d B Crystal

?

Fig. 3.3: Diffraction patterns obtained by passing X-rays through crystals

can only be explained by using ideas based on the interference of waves.
(a) Diffraction of X-rays from a single crystal gives a diffraction pattern
of bright spots on a photographic film. (b) Diffraction of X-rays from a
powdered crystalline material or a polycrystalline material gives a
diffraction pattern of bright rings on a photographic film. (c) X-ray
diffraction involves constructive interference of waves being "reflected"
by various atomic planes in the crystal.
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 Light
CATHODE ANODE

Electrons
1
Evacuated quartz tube A

8
- +

Fig. 3.4: The Photoelectric Effect.

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 1 Saturation
12

11

8
­8 0 0
(a) Photoelectric current vs. voltage when the cathode is illuminated with light of identical
wavelength but different intensities (1). The saturation current is proportional to the light
intensity

K > K
K! < K
K K K!
8
­801 ­802 ­803 0

(b) The stopping voltage and therefore the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron
increases with the frequency of light K. (Note: The light intensity is not the same)

Fig. 3.5: Results from the photoelectric experiment.

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 KEm
Cs K W

K03 slope = h

0 K
K02 K01

­.3

­.2

­.1

Fig. 3.6: The effect of varying the frequency of light and the
cathode material in the photoelectric experiment. The lines for the
different materials have the same slope of h but different intercepts.
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 Cu ions

"Electron gas" ("free"

electrons wandering
around in the metal)

PE Free Electron
KE
0

F
Light wave
-F
Distance, x
SURFACE 0 METAL a SURFACE

Fig. 3.7: The PE of an electron inside the metal is lower than outside
by an energy called the workfunction of the metal. Work must be
done to remove the electron from the metal.
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 c

Fig. 3.8: Intuitive visualization of light consisting of a stream of

photons (not to be taken too literally) [From © R. Serway, C. J.
Moses and C.A. Moyer, Modern Physics, Saunders College
Publishing, 1989, p.56, Fig. 2.16(b)]
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 Recoiling electron

X-ray photon ? Electron

f
q
u, l
O

Scattered photon u, l

N ?

Fig. 3.9: Scattering of an x-ray photon by a "free" electron in a

conductor.
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 X­ray spectrometer
Source of
monochromatic
X­rays Collimator
l
l0 q l0
X-ray beam
Unscattered x-
rays

Path of the spectrometer

(a) A schematic diagram of the Compton experiment.

Intensity of Intensity of Intensity of

X-rays X-rays x-rays
q = 0° q = 90° q = 135°
Primary beam

l l l
l0 l0 l l0 l
(b) Results from the Compton experiment

Fig. 3.10. The Compton experiment and its results.

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 Escaping black body
radiation

Hot body

Small hole acts as a black body

1l
Spectral irradiance

3000 K Classical theory

Planck's radiation law

2500 K
l ( mm)
0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 3.11. Schematic illustration of black body radiation and its

characteristics. Spectral irradiance vs wavelength at two temperatures
(3000K is about the temperature of the incandescent tungsten
filament in a light bulb).
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 Fluorescent screen
50kV
Two slits

Filament

Electrons

Vacuum Electron diffraction fringes on the

screen

Fig 3.12: Young's double slit experiment with electrons involves an

electron gun and two slits in a cathode ray tune (CRT) (hence in
vacuum). Electrons from the filament are accelerated by a 50 kV
anode voltage to produce a beam which is made to pass through the
slits. The electrons then produce a visible pattern when they strike a
fluoresecent screen (e.g. a TV screen) and the resulting visual pattern
is photographed (pattern from C. Jönsson, D. Brandt, S. Hirschi,
Am. J. Physics, 42, Fig. 8, p. 9, 1974.
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 Photographic Plate
Screen (retractable) Pump
Diffraction Pattern
D Capillary tube
(0.23 mm dia.)
C -
E 25 cm B A
V

Gold Foil Foil Cathode

Cathode Rays: Gas
Flurescent viewing screen
Electrons
(a) Thomson diffracted electrons by using (b): Thomson's electron diffraction apparatus. A beam of
a thin gold foil and produced a diffraction electrons is generated in tube A, passed through collimating
pattern on the screen of his apparatus in tube B, and made to impinge on a thin gold foil C. The
(b). The foil was polycrystalline so that transmitted electrons impinge on the fluorescent screen E, or a
the diffraction pattern was circular rings. photographic plate D which could be lowered into the path.
The entire apparatus was evacuated during the experiment
(after G.P. Thompon, Proceedings of the Royal Society, A117
600 (1928)).

(c) Electron diffraction

pattern obtained by G. (d) Composite photograph showing
P. Thomson using a diffraction patterns produced with an
gold foil target. aluminum foil by X-rays and
electrons of similar wavelength. Left:
X-rays of l = 0.071 nm. Right:
Electrons of energy 600 eV.
A
(e) Diffraction pattern produced by 40 keV electrons passing through zinc oxide powder. The
distribution of the pattern was produced by a small magnet which was placed between the sample and the
photographic plate. An X-ray diffraction pattern would not be affected by a magnetic field.

Fig. 3.13: The diffraction of electrons by crystals gives typical diffraction patterns that
would be expected if waves were being diffracted as in X-ray diffraction with crystals
[(c) and (d) from A.P. French and F. Taylor, An Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
(Norton, New York, 1978), p. 75; (e) from R. B. Leighton, Principles of Modern
Physics, McGraw-Hill, 1959), p.84.
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 O(N) O(N) not continuous O(N) @O not continuous
@N

N N

O(N) O(N) not single valued

Fig. 3.14: Unacceptable forms of O(N)

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 V(x)
Electron
¥

V=¥ V=0 V=¥

x
0 0 a
Energy levels in the well y(x) µ sin(npx/a)Probability density µ |y(x)|2
y4
n=4
E4

y3
Energy of electron

n=3
E3
y2
n=2
E2
E1 n=1 y1
0
x=0 x=a x
0 a0 a

Fig. 3.15: Electron in a one-dimensional infinite PE well. The energy

of the electron is quantized. Possible wavefunctions and the
probability distributions for the electron are shown.
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 D
Start here from rest

C E
A
B

(a)
V(x)
Vo
E < Vo
O1(x)
O11(x)
Incident O111(x
A1 )
A2
Reflected Transmitted

I II III

x=0 x=a x
(b)

Fig. 3.16
(a) The roller coaster released from A can at most make to C, but not
to E. Its PE at A is less than the PE at D. When the car is the bottom
its energy is totally KE. CD is the energy barrier which prevents the car
making to E. In quantum theory, on the other hand, there is a chance
that the car could tunnel (leak) through the potential energy barrier
between C and E and emerge on the other side of the hill at E .
(b) The wavefunction of the electron incident on a potential energy
barrier (Vo). The incident and reflected waves interfere to give OI(x).
There is no reflected wave in region III. In region II the wavefunction
decays with x because E < Vo.
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 Metal Metal Vacuum
Vacuum
O(x) Second Metal
O(x)

Vo Vo
V(x) V(x)
E < Vo
x x
(a) (b)
Itunnel

Itunnel
Probe Scan x

Material
surface
Image of surface (schematic sketch)
(c)

Fig. 3.17: (a) The wavefunction decays exponentially as we move

away from the surface because the PE outside the metal is Vo and
the energy of the electron, E < Vo. (b) If we bring a second metal
close to the first metal, then the wavefunction can penetrate into the
second metal. The electron can tunnel from the first metal to the
second. (c) The principle of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope. The
tunneling current depends on exp(­=a) where a is the distance of the
probe from the surface of the material and = is a constant.
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 nA

Tunneling
current gray
O (Å)
scale value

N (Å)

Fig. 3.18: An STM image of graphite surface. White spots represents

the carbon atoms. We can clearly see the hexagonal symmetry of
atomic arrangements on the surface. Both O and N axes are in
angstroms (1Å = 10-10 m) (curtesy of Dr. Carol Rabke, Burleigh
Instruments Inc., Fishers, New York.)
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 z

c V=¥

V=¥
V=0
V=¥ y
0 b
a V=¥
x

Fig. 3.19: Electron confined in three dimensions by a three

dimensional infinite "PE box". Everywhere inside the box, V = 0,
but outside, V = ¥. The electron cannot escape from the box.
What is the energy and wavefunction of the electron?
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 z
P(r,G,B)
G ­e

r
Nucleus
+Ze y
rsi
nG
B
x

V(r)
r

­ Ze2
V(r) =
4FAor

+Ze

Fig. 3.20: The electron in the hydrogenic atom is attracted by a central

force that is always directed towards the positive nucleus. We
therefore use spherical coordinates centered at the nucleus to describe
the position of the electron. The PE of the electron depends on r only.
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 n=1 n=2
n=1 n=2
R1,0

R2,0

r2|R2,0|2
r2|R1,0|2
2s
2s
0

r2|R2,1|2
R2,1

1s 1s
2p 2p
0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.4 0.6
r (nm) r (nm) r (nm) r (nm)
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.21: (a) Radial wavefunctions of the electron in a hydrogenic

atom for various n andlvalues. (b) r2| Rn,l| 2gives the radial probability
density. Vertical axis scales are linear in arbitrary units.
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 z z
z z

y y
y y
x x
x x
2
Y for a 1s orbital Y for a 2px orbital |Y|2 for a 1s orbital |Y| for a 2px orbital
z z z z

y y y y
x x x x

Y for a 2py orbital Y for a 2pz orbital (ml = 0) |Y|2 for a 2py orbital |Y|2 for a 2pz orbital
(ml = 0)
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.22: (a) The polar plots of Yn,l(θ,φ ) for 1s and 2p states. (b)
The angular dependence of the probability distribution which is
proportional to |Yn,l(θ,φ )|2.
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 Electron energy, En.

E = KE Continuum of energy. Electron is free.

0 n=¥
­0.54 #

Excited states
­0.85 "
­1.51 !

­3.40

­5

Ionization energy, EI
­10

­13.6 eV 1 Ground state n=1

­15 n

Fig. 3.23: The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom (Z = 1).
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 Emission spectrum
Photon
+ (a)
l l

Photon Absorption spectrum

+ (b)
l
l

Fig. 3.24: The physical origin of (a) emission and (b) absorption
spectra.
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 Atom Photon

n=1

Atom n=1
n=2
(a) Before collision (b) Just after collision (c) Photon emission

Fig. 3.25: An Atom can become excited by a collision with another

atom. When it returns to its ground energy state, it emits a photon.
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 Bexternal z

Bexternal z ml
Bexternal z
2 l=2

Lz 1
L Lz L = h 2(2+1)
G
L 0
G
y
ml ­1
cosG =
x l(l+1)
Orbiting electron 0 ­2

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.26 (a) The electron has an orbital angular momentum which has a
quantized component, Lz, along an external magnetic field, Bexternal.
(b) The orbital angular momentum vector L rotates about the z-axis. Its
component Lz is quantized and therefore the orientation of L, the angle
G, is also quantized. L traces out a cone. (c) According to quantum
mechanics, only certain orientations (G) for L are allowed as determined
by l and ml.
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 Energy
l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3
0 n
l

5
5s 5p 5d 5f
4
4s 4p 4d 4f

3
3s 3p 3d

2
2s 2p Photon

­13.6eV 1
1s

Fig. 3.27: An illustration of the allowed photon emission processes.

Photon emission involves ,l = ±1.
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 S z (along Bz) Spin Up

+h/2 ms = +1/2
3h
2
S

0
S
3h
2
-h/2 ms = -1/2

Spin Down

Fig. 3.28: Spin angular momentum exhibits space quantization. Its

magnitude along z is quantized so that the angle of S to the z-axis is
also quantized.
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 µorbital
B
N

= = =
A
ω i
-e B S
(a)

S
Spin direction
S

=
Equivalent current N

µspin Magnetic moment (b)

Fig. 3.29: (a) The orbitting electron is equivalent to a current loop

which behaves like a bar of magnet.
(b) The spinning electron ican be imagined to be equivalent to a
current loop as shown. This current loop behaves like a bar of
magnet just as in orbital case.
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 j =l+ 1/2
L j = l­ 1/2
L S
S
J
ms = +1/2
L L
S J
­e
­e

1
S ms = ­ /2
(a) Parallel (b) Antiparallel

Fig. 3.30: Orbital angular momentum vector L and spin angular

momentum vector S can add either in parallel as in (a) or antiparallel
as in (b). The total angular momentum vector J = L + S has a
magnitude J = Ö[j(j+1)] where in (a) j = l+1/2 and in (b) j = l­1/2.
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 B
z

J Jz=mjD

L J

S L

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.31 (a) The angular momentum vectors L and S precess

around their resultant total angular momentum vector J.
(b) The total angular momentum vector is space quantized. Vector
J precesses about the z-axis along which its component must be
mjD .
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 ­e
Electron 1

r1 r12

r2
Nucleus ­e
+Ze Electron 2

Fig. 3.32: A helium-like atom. The nucleus has a charge of +Ze,

where for He Z = 2. If one electron is removed, we have the He+
ion which is equivalent to the hydrogenic atom with Z = 2.
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Energy
O
5g

5f
N 6p
5d
4f 6s

5p
4d 5s
M
4p
3d 4s

3p
3s
L
2p
2s

K
1s
n
1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 3.33: Energy of various one-electron states. The energy depends

on both n and l
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 ms = +1/2

+2A

n=1
l=0
ml = 0
ms = ­1/2

Fig. 3.34: Paired spins in an orbital.

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 1 0 ­1 = ml

L p
(n=2)
s
H He Li
K
s
(n=1)

L p
(n=2)

Be B
K
(n=1)

Fig. 3.35: Electronic configurations for the first five elements. Each
box represents an orbital O(n, l, ml ).
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 C N O

p
L
s

K s

F Ne

p
L
s

K s

Fig. 3.36: Electronic configurations for C, N, O, F and Ne atoms.

Notice that Hund's rule forces electrons to align their spins in C, N
and O. The Ne atom has all the K and L orbitals full.
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 -2 -2 -2
DK DK
DK DK IN
OUT
DK
-1 -1 -1
(a) Absorption (b) Spontaneous (c) Stimulated
emission emission

Fig. 3.37: Absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

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 DK!
-3 -3
DK13
-2 -2
Metastable
state

-1 -1

(a) (b)

-3 -3

-2 -2
DK21

DK21 OUT

Coherent photons
-1 -1

(c) (d)

Fig. 3.38: The principle of the LASER. (a) Atoms in the ground state are
pumped up to the energy level -3 by incoming photons of energy DK13 =
-3­-1. (b) Atoms at -3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at energy
level -2 by emitting photons or emitting lettice vibrations. DK32 = -3­-2.
(c) As the states at -2 are metastable, they quickly become populated and
there is a population inversion between -2 and -1. (d) A random photon
of energy DK21 = -2­-1 can initiate stimulated emission. Photons from this
stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading to
an avalanche of stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emtitted.
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 Flat mirror (Reflectivity = 0.999) Concave mirror
(Reflectivity = 0.985)
Very thin tube

Laser beam
He-Ne gas mixture

Current regulated HV power supply

Fig. 3.39: A schematic illustration of the He-Ne laser

A modern stabilized HeNe laser.

|SOURCE: Courtesy of Melles Griot

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 He Ne

(1s12s1) Collisions (2p55s1)

20.61 eV 20.66 eV 632.8 nm
Lasing emission
(2p53p1)
Fast spontaneous decay
~600 nm
Electron impact

(2p53s1)

Collisions with
the tube walls

0 (1s2) (2p6)
Ground states

Fig. 3.40: The principle of operation of the He-Ne laser. He-Ne

laser energy levels (for 632.8nm emission).
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 Emission Intensity Allowed Cavity Relative intensity
Oscillations

Doppler
n(l/2) = L
broadening

lo

l l l
= > ?

Fig. 3.41: (a) Doppler broadened emission vs. wavelength characteristics of

the lasing medium. (b) Allowed oscillations and their wavelengths within the
optical cavity. (c) The output spectrum is determined by satisfying (a) and
(b) simultaneously.
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 Energy of the Er3+ ion
in the glass fiber

1.27 eV -3
Non-radiative decay
Pump
980 nm 0.80 eV -2
1550 nm 1550 nm

Out
In
0 -1

Fig. 3.42 Energy diagram for the Er3+ ion in the glass fiber medium
and light amplification by stimulated emission from -2 to -1. Dashed
arrows indicate radiationless transitions (energy emission by lattice
vibrations)
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 Er3+-doped
fiber (10 - 20 m)
Wavelength-selective
Signal in coupler Splice Signal out
Splice

l = 1550 nm l = 1550 nm

Pump laser diode

l = 980 nm

Fig. 3.43: A simplified schematic illustration of an EDFA (optical

amplifier). The erbium-ion doped fiber is pumped by feeding the
light from a laser pump diode, through a coupler, into the erbium ion
doped fiber.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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