DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DIGITAL NOTES

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE-Accredited by NBA & NACC-‘A’ Grade – ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad -500100, Telangana State, India.

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ENGINEERING

MALLAREDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

I Year B.Tech-I Sem L/T/P/C
3/-/-/ 3

(R22A0201)PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COURSEOBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the basic concepts of electrical circuits and analyze Circuits using Network
Theorems.
2. To get overview of single phase A.C. circuits and three phase A.C. circuits.
3. To introduce the concept of DC Machines and Single-Phase Transformers.
4. To study the concepts of p-n diodes, rectifiers and Zener diodes.
5. To study the concepts of BJTs, JFET and MOSFETs.

UNIT –I: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: Concept of Circuit and Network, R-L-C Parameters,
Ohms law and its limitations, Kirchhoff’s Laws-KVL, KCL.

NETWORK ANALYSIS (D.C EXCITATION): Series and parallel connections of Resistive Networks, voltage
division and current division, Meshanalysis, Nodal analysis

NETWORK THEOREMS: Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem and Superposition Theorem(for

independent sources).

UNIT–II: SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS: Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor for
sinusoidal wave form.Concept of phase, phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities phasedifference,
Sinusoidal response of pure R, L, C.
THREE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS: Advantages of Three phase over single phase, Voltage and Current
relationship in star and delta connections.

UNIT-III: MACHINES:
DC Generator: principle of operation and working, Action of commutator, constructional features, basic
concept of Lap and wave windings, emf equation.
DC Motor: principle of operation, Back emf and its significance, torque equation-Gross torque and Shaft
torque.
Single Phase Transformer: principle of operation, emf equation, problems on emf equation.

UNIT–IV:
P-N JUNCTION DIODE: P-N junction diode, symbol and forward biased and reverse biased conditions, V-I
characteristics of P-N junction diode, Half wave, Full wave and Bridge rectifiers. ZENER DIODE: Symbol,
construction, principle of operation and its applications.

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UNIT–V:
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR: Symbols, types, Construction and Principle of Operation of N-P-N and
P-N-P transistors,Amplifying Action, Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector
configurations.
JFET, Symbol, Construction, Principle of operation, and its Characterstics, MOSFET (Enhancement and
Depletion mode) Symbol, Construction, Principle of Operation and its Characteristics.

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Circuit Analysis - William Hayt, Jack E. Kemmerly, S M Durbin, Mc Graw Hill Companies.
2. Electric Circuits - A. Chakrabarhty, Dhanipat Rai & Sons.
3. Engineering Electrical Machines – P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers.
4. “ElectronicDevices&Circuits”, SpecialEdition–MRCET,McGrawHillPublications,2017.
5. IntegratedElectronicsAnalogDigitalCircuits,JacobMillmanandD.Halkias,McGrawHill.
6. ElectronicDevicesandCircuits, S.Salivahanan, N.Sureshkumar, McGrawHill.

REFERENCEBOOKS
1. Network analysis by M.E Van Valkenburg, PHI learning publications.
2. Network analysis - N.C Jagan and C. Lakhminarayana, BS publications.
3. Electrical Circuits by A. Sudhakar, Shyammohan and S Palli, Mc Graw Hill Companies.
4. Electrical Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D. P. Kothari, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishers.
5. Electronic Devices and Circuits, K.LalKishore, B.S Publications
6. Electronic Devices and Circuits, G.S.N.Raju, I.K.International Publications, NewDelhi,2006.

COURSEOUTCOMES:
After the course completion the students will be able to

1. Apply the basic RLC circuit elements and its concepts to networks and circuits.
2. Analyze the circuits by applying network theorems to solve them to find various electrical parameters.
3. Illustrate the single-phase AC circuits along with the concept of impedance parameters and power.
4. Understand the Constructional Details and Principle of Operation of DC Machines and Transformers
5. To understand the concepts of p-n diode, rectifiers and Zener diode
6. To understand the concepts of BJTs, JFET and MOSFETs

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PREFACE
Engineering institutions have been modernizing and updating their curriculum to keep
pace with the continuously developing technological trends so as to meet the correspondingly changing
educational demands of the industry. As the years passed by, multi-disciplinary education system also
has become more and more relevant in the present global industrial development. Thus, just as
Computer Systems & Applications, Basic Electrical Engineering also has become an integral part of all
the industrial and engineering sectors be it infrastructure, power generation, minor & major Industries,
Industrial Safety or process industries where automation has become an inherent part. Accordingly,
several universities have been bringing in a significant change in their graduate programs of engineering
starting from the first year to meet the needs of these important industrial sectors to enhance the
employability of their graduates. Thus, at college entry level itself Basic Electrical Engineering has become
the first Multidisciplinary core engineering subject for almost all the other core engineering branches like
Civil, Mechanical, Production engineering, Industrial Engineering, Aeronautical, Instrumentation, Control
Systems and Computer Engineering. As a further impetus, since for understanding of this subject a
practical knowledge is equally important, a laboratory course is also added in the curriculum. The chapters
are so chosen that the student comprehends all the important theoretical concepts with good practical
insight.
This handbook of Digital notes for Basic Electrical Engineering is brought out in a simple
and lucid manner highlighting the important underlying concepts & objectives along with sequential
steps tounderstand the subject.

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INDEX
SNO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

UNIT –I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

1. Concept of Circuit and Network 8-9

2. R-L-C Parameters 13-18

3. Kirchhoff’s Laws 18-21

4. Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks 25-30

5. Mesh Analysis 30-32

6. Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem 34-38

7. Norton’s Theorem 38-42

8. Superposition Theorem 42-44

UNIT-II SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

9. Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor 46-52
for sinusoidal wave form.

10. Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits. 55-62

11. Advantages of Three phase over single phase 62-62

12. Voltage and Current relationship in star and delta connections. 63-66

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UNIT –III ELECTRICAL MACHINES

13. Dc Generator: Principle of operation 68-71
14. Constructional features 71-76
15. EMF equation 76-77
16. DC Motor: Principle of operation 78-85
17. Torque equation 86-87
18. Single phase transformer: Constructional features 88-90
19. Principle of operation 90-91
20. EMF equation 91-92

UNIT–IV: P-N JUNCTION DIODE

21. P-N junction diode, symbol 93-98

22. forward biased and reverse biased conditions, V-I 98-103

characteristics of P-N junction diode,
23. Half wave, Full wave and Bridge rectifiers. 103-108
24. ZENER DIODE: Symbol, construction, principle of 109-110
operation and its applications.

107-110
UNIT–V: BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
25. Symbols, types, Construction and Principle of Operation of N- 111-115
P-N and P-N-P transistors

26. Amplifying Action, Common Emitter, and Common Base and 116-126
Common Collector configurations.

27. JFET: Symbol, Construction, Principle of operation, and its 127-138

Characteristics,

28. MOSFET (Enhancement and Depletion mode) Symbol, 139-153

Construction, Principle of Operation and its Characteristics.

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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

o Concept of Circuit and Network

o R-L-C Parameters
o Kirchhoff’s Laws
o Simple Problems

o Network Reduction Techniques

o Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks
o Mesh Analysis
o Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem
o Norton’s Theorem
o Superposition Theorem
o Problems

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric
networks. In this introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the
types of network elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −

• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further. Let’s start
with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks" but
the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.

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As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured in
terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal,
whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained
due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a
pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it can
be written as

Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.

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Types of Network Elements

We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters. Following
are the types of Network elements −
o Active Elements and Passive Elements

• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements

o Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
o Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements
Active Elements and Passive Elements
We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
• Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit. Sometimes,
they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the capability of
both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
• Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb power.
That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to
obey the property of linearity.
• Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
• Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and
current. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction
of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same impedance in
either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.

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The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedanceof Z Ω. It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and current (I).

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. That means the current (–I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we will get
the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect to terminals
A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.
We discussed the types of network elements in the previous chapter. Now, let us identify the nature of
network elements from the V-I characteristics given in the following examples.
Example 1

The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

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Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line passing through the
origin. Hence, it is linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants.

• In the first quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) are positive. So, the ratios of voltage
(V) and current (I) gives positive impedance values.
• Similarly, in the third quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) have negative values.
So, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values.
Since, the given V-I characteristics offer positive impedance values, the network element is a Passive
element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
For every point (I, V) on the characteristics, there exists a corresponding point (-I, -V) on the given
characteristics. Hence, the network element is a Bilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Linear, Passive, and Bilateral
element.
Example 2
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line only between the points
(-3A, -3V) and (5A, 5V). Beyond these points, the V-I characteristics are not following the linear relation.
Hence, it is a Non-linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.

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The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants. In these two quadrants,
the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values. Hence, the network element is
a Passive element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
Consider the point (5A, 5V) on the characteristics. The corresponding point (-5A, -3V) exists on the given
characteristics instead of (-5A, -5V). Hence, the network element is a Unilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Non-linear, Passive,
and Unilateral element. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Lumped and Distributed Elements

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions takes
place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds of
miles.
R-L-C Parameters
Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

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Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to the
applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.

Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned

in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Ψ is the total magnetic flux

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• L is the inductance of an inductor

Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.

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Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If positive
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage is applied
across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have
linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.

Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

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We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

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By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as

So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Cur ent Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node is
equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are
connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

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Where,
• Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.

• M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.

The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal
to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.

• In the above figure, the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 areentering at node P. So, consider negative signs
for these three currents.
• In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 areleaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand side
represents the sum of leaving currents.
In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it enters
a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign when it
enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or

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mesh is equal to zero.

A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
doesn’t contain any other loops inside it.
Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

Where,
• Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
• N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help of the
following example.
Example

Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The voltage
drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.

In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-hand
side represents the sum of voltage drops. In this example, we considered only one voltage source. That’s why

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the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the left side contains
sum of voltage sources.
In this tutorial, we consider the sign of each element’s voltage as the polarity of the second terminal that is
present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the polarity
of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.

• Current Division Principle

• Voltage Division Principle

Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows
through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the
resistors R1 andR2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be

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From equations of I1 and I2, we can generalize that the current flowing through any passive element can be
found by using the following formula.

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This is known as current division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements
areconnected in parallel and only one current enters the node.
Where,
• IN is the current flowing through the passive element of Nth branch.
• IS is the input current, which enters the node.
• Z1, Z2, …,ZN are the impedances of 1st branch, 2ndbranch, …, Nth branch respectively.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage
present across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is
available across that entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
current flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2
are V1 and V2 respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be

• Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

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Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

From equations of V1 and V2, we can generalize that the voltage across any passive element can be found
byusing the following formula.

This is known as voltage division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements
areconnected in series and only one voltage available across the entire combination.
Where,
• VN is the voltage across Nth passive element.
• VS is the input voltage, which is present across the entire combination of series passive elements.
• Z1,Z2, …,Z3 are the impedances of 1st passive element, 2nd passive element, …, Nth passive
elementrespectively.

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NETWORK ANALYSIS

Network Reduction Techniques:

There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and
Mesh analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of
series type or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element.
Hence, this circuit is called as an equivalent circuit.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.

• Series Equivalent Circuit

• Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through
allthese elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these
elementsare connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is

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The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor.The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those

multiple resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the
equivalentinductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the
equivalentcapacitance will be

Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be

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maintainedacross each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2, and R3. All these
elementsare connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this
principalnode (P) is

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The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an
equivalent resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of
reciprocal of each resistance of all those multiple resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the
equivalent inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the
equivalent capacitance will be

Example Problems:

1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)

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Solution:

To get Req we
combine
resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent
resistanceis

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms
resistors arein series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series.
Hence,the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

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Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent
resistance is4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms
Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits
that have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis is
also called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only
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one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference)
of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure ofMesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
• Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
• Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
• Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first
and then Ohm’s law.
• Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

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Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.
Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh
current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh
currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given circuit.
When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as greater than
all other mesh currents of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

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Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand side
terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is84 V.

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Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the
electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of
meshes is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is equal
to the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

Network Theorems:
Introduction:

Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element
response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as
network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us
see some important theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving Network problems
having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be reduced to simple
equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis many a times the current
through a branch is required to be found when it’s value is changed with all other element values
remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the branch current using the conventional mesh
and node analysis methods is quite awkward and time consuming. But with the simple equivalent
circuits (with one active source and one element) obtained using these two theorems the calculations
become very simple. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.
Thevenin’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series
with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking
into the terminals(with concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all
sources are replaced by their internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and
current source is open circuit.
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(a) (b)

Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with
the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Thevenin's
equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .

Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say
a & b after removing the concerned branch/element
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional network
mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network
contains dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals
with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage
sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)

4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or) load
resistance across the load terminals (A&B) as shown in below fig.(a)

Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL resistor as shown
in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

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Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as shown
in the fig. (1)

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Fig.(1)
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now
we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors
as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA
x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ
resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e.
12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB
terminals.
So, VTH = 12V

Fig (2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short

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circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)

Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (RTH)We have
Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure
(3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω
resistor. i.e.:

8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Fig(4)
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor. This is the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.

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VTH

Fig (5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Norton’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel
with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across the load
terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking through the
open circuited load terminals.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with
the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Norton
equivalent circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .

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Main steps to find out IN and RN:

• The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked
as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
• Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two terminals are
found out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are same as
what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
• Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc
b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned
terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e.
ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
• Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across the
load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig

Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the figure
(a) below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Fig(a)
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Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short the
1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the
Norton Current (IN).

We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, IN. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total Resistance
of the circuit to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
IT = V / RT

IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..

Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(3)

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Fig(2)
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All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in fig.(4)
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Fig(4)

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN) We have Reduced
the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig(4), We can
see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω

Fig(5)

Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig
(6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.
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Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the terminals
A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]

IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ) IL

= 1.5A IL = 1. 5A

Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of
the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their
ideal internal resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The
total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages
in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their
ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

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Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)

Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage
source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is
given by :

Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage
source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A

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The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in
fig.(a).Then we get :
𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A.

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UNIT-II
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

• Average value, R.M.S. value, form factor and peak factor for sinusoidal wave form.
• Steady State Analysis of series R-L-C circuits.
• Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance, Admittance.
• Concept of Power Factor, Real, Reactive and Complex power.
• Illustrative Problems.

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RMS VALUE:
• The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an
alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit
or resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by the
alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific time.
• The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through in a heating
element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
• In short,
• The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then
both AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same circuit
for a specific time period.

For a sinusoidal wave ,

or
IRMS = 0.707 x IM , ERMS = 0.707 EM

• Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave. For
example, when a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produces specific amount
of heat (Fig 2 – a). When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as shown in
(fig 2 – b). By adjusting the value of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat generated before
in AC voltage source in fig a. It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage
source producing the same amount of heat generated by AC Voltage source.
• In more clear words, the domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This
voltage level shows the effective value of (110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home
wall socket is capable to provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V
DC Voltage.
• Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits always
showing the RMS values (of current and voltage).

• For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:

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IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM

• Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.

• We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =
Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
• While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

The Square root of this value is:

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ):

Now,

Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:

IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707
Average Value:
If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through
rectifiers, then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating current
sine wave.

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Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage

If the maximum value of alternating current is “IMAX“, then the value of converted DC current through
rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM
The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that
Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred by
that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current
in first half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In other
words, There are same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows in the
opposite direction, so the average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason that’s
why we don’t use average value for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted into DC
through a rectifier, It can be used for electrochemical works.

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Fig 5- Average Value of Current

In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the
positive values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero
crossing.)
We know that the standard equation of alternating current is
i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

• Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im

• Average value of current on sine wave = IAV
• Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i
• The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ
• Angle of half cycle = π radians
• Angle of full cycle = 2π radians

(a) Average value of complete cycle:

Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
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(b) Average value of current over a half cycle

Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)

IAV = 0.637 VM

Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle

VAV = 0.637 VM

What is Peak Voltage or Maximum Voltage Value ?

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum value
of alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half cycle in a
sinusoidal wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM.
Equations of Peak Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMSVP
= VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P

VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV

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In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks)
with respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

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Fig 8 – Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

Peak to Peak Value:

The sum of positive and negative peak values is known as peak to peak value. Its expressed
as IPP or VPP.
Equations and formulas for Peak to Peak Voltage are as follow:

VP-P = 2√2 x VRMS = 2.828 x VRMSVP-

P =2 x VP

VP-P = π x VAV = 3.141 x VAV

In other words, the peak to peak value of a sine wave, is the voltage or current from positive peak to
the negative peak and its value is double as compared to peak value or maximum value as shown in
fig 8 above.

Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

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For a sinusoidal alternating current:

Form Factor:
The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is

known as Form Factor.

Other Terms Related To AC Circuits

Waveform
• The path traced by a quantity (such as voltage or current) plotted as a function of some variable
(such as time, degree, radians, temperature etc.) is called waveform.

Cycle
1. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quality (such as voltage and current)
is known as cycle.
2. The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time is called cycle.
3. A distance between two same points related to value and direction is known as cycle.
4. A cycle is a complete alternation.

Period
• The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete one cycle is
called its time period “T”.
• It is inversely proportional to the Frequency “f” and denoted by “T” where the unit of time
period is second.
• Mathematically;
T = 1/f
Frequency

• Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has the
unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
• The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
• It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
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• Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T

Amplitude
• The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current
is known as its amplitude. Its denoted by VP, IP or EMAX and IMAX.
• Alternation
• One half cycle of a sine wave (Negative or Positive) is known as alternation which span is 180°
degree.

Fig 9 – Different Terms used in AC Circuits and Sine Wave

Introduction to Single Phase AC Circuit:

• In a dc circuit the relationship between the applied voltage V and current flowing through the
circuit I is a simple one and is given by the expression I = V/R but in an a c circuit this simple
relationship does not hold good. Variations in current and applied voltage set up magnetic and
electrostatic effects respectively and these must be taken into account with the resistance of the
circuit while determining the quantitative relations between current and applied voltage.
• With comparatively low-voltage, heavy- current circuits magnetic effects may be very large,
but electrostatic effects are usually negligible. On the other hand with high-voltage circuits
electrostatic effects may be of appreciable magnitude, and magnetic effects are also present.
• Here it has been discussed how the magnetic effects due to variations in current do and
electrostatic effects due to variations in the applied voltage affect the relationship between the
applied voltage and current.
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Purely Resistive Circuit:

• A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small that at
normal frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance. Ordinary filament
lamps, water resistances etc., are the examples of non-inductive resistances. If the circuit is
purely non-inductive, no reactance emf (i.e., self- induced or back emf) is set up and whole of
• the applied voltage is utilized in overcoming the ohmic resistance of the circuit.
• Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a
sinusoidal voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.

As already said, when the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is set up,
therefore, applied voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of i R only:
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And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt

From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident that in
a pure resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as shown by
wave and phasor diagrams in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c) respectively.

Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values
of applied voltage and current.
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Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From the
power curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) it is evident that power consumed in a
pure resistive circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are
always either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the
voltage source constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

Purely Inductive Circuit:

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Practically
pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small resistance. However, a coil
of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance arid is known as a
choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf,
is induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant
applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf
only.

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From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2 as shown in
Fig. 4.2 (b) by wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.

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Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL i.e., XL =
ωL
If L is in henry and co is in radians per second then XL will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax Imax/2 sin 2 ωt
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a
sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive
circuit power absorbed is zero.

Physically the above fact can be explained as below:

During the second quarter of a cycle the current and the magnetic flux of the coil increases and the
coil draws power from the supply source to build up the magnetic field (the power drawn is positive
and the energy drawn by the coil from the supply source is represented by the area between the curve
p and the time axis). The energy stored in the magnetic field during build up is given as Wmax = 1/2 L
I2max.
In the next quarter the current decreases. The emf of self-induction will, however, tends to oppose its
decrease. The coil acts as a generator of electrical energy, returning the stored energy in the magnetic
field to the supply source (now the power drawn by the coil is negative and the curve p lies below the
time axis).
The chain of events repeats itself during the next half cycles. Thus, a proportion of power is
continually exchanged between the field and the inductive circuit and the power consumed by a
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purely inductive coil is zero.

Purely Capacitive Circuit:

When a dc voltage is impressed across the plates of a perfect condenser, it will become charged to
full voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will flow only during the period of “build
up” and will cease to flow as soon as the capacitor has attained the steady voltage of the source. This
implies that for a direct current, a capacitor is a break in the circuit or an infinitely high resistance.
In Fig. 4.4 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied
voltage increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is
maximum in the beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied
voltage, so there is a phase difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the first
quarter-cycle the current flows in the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is
positive.
In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its
charge, and current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges into
the circuit. Thus, the current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a maximum
value when the applied voltage is zero.

The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the
difference that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current
changes.
In other words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging of the
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capacitor. As illustrated in Figs. 4.4 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead of the
voltage, so the current in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite of the
inductance current-voltage relationship.
Let an alternating voltage represented by v = Vmax sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of capacitance
C farads.

The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:

q = C Vmax sin ωt

Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may
be obtained by differentiating the above equation:

From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through
capacitance, it is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 4.4 (b)
and (c) by wave and phasor diagrams respectively.

Capacitive Reactance:

1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC i.e.,
XC = 1/ω C
If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:

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Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero. The same is shown graphically in Fig. 4.4
(b). The energy taken from the supply circuit is stored in the capacitor during the first quarter- cycle
and returned during the next.

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the
expression:

This can be realized when it is recalled that no heat is produced and no work is done while current is
flowing through a capacitor. As a matter of fact, in commercial capacitors, there is a slight energy loss
in the dielectric in addition to a minute I2 R loss due to flow of current over the plates having definite
ohmic resistance.
The power curve is a sine wave of double the supply frequency. Although it raises the power factor
from zero to 0.002 or even a little more, but for ordinary purposes the power factor is taken to be zero.
Obviously the phase angle due to dielectric and ohmic losses decreases slightly.

THREE PHASE A.C CIRCUITS:

The advantages of a poly phase system over single phase system are enumerated below:

i) In a single phase circuit the power delivered is pulsating. Even when current and voltage are in phase, the
power is zero twice in each cycle, and when the current leads or lags behind the voltage, the power is
negative twice and zero four times during each cycle. This is not objectionable for lighting and small motors
but with large motors it causes excessive vibrations. In polyphase system the total power delivered is
constant if loads are balanced though the power of any one phase or circuit may be negative. So polyphase
system is highly desirable particularly for power loads.

(ii) The rating of a given machine increases with the increase in number of phases. For example output of a
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3-phase motor is 1.5 times the output of a single phase motor of same size.

(iii) Single phase induction motors have no starting torque and so it is necessary to provide these motors
with an auxiliary means of starting, but in case of three-phase motors except synchronous motors, there is
no need of providing an auxiliary means for starting.

(iv) Power factor of a single-phase motor is lower than that of a polyphase motor of the same rating
(output and speed). The efficiency of a polyphase motor is also higher than that of a single-phase motor.

v) Three phase-system requires 3/4th weight of copper of that required by single-phase system to transmit
the same amount of power at a given voltage and over a given distance.

(vi) Rotating magnetic field can be set up by passing polyphase currents through stationary coils,

(vii) Polyphase system is more capable and reliable than single-phase system, and

(viii) Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple as compared to that of single-phase alternators
because of pulsating reaction in single phase alternators.

However, three-phase operation is not as practical for domestic applications where motors are usually
smaller than 1 kW and where lighting circuits supply most of the load.

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONSHIP IN STAR AND DELTA CONNECTIONS:

Star (Wye) Connected System

Let VR, VY and VB represents the three phase voltages while VRY, VYB and VBR represents the line voltages.
Assume that the system is balanced, so
|VR|=|VY|=|VB|=|Vph||VR|=|VY|=|VB|=|Vph|

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From the circuit and phasor diagram of star connected load, it can be observed that the line voltage V RY is a
vector difference of VR and VY or the vector sum of VR and –VY, i.e.
VRY=VR+(−VY)=VR−VYVRY=VR+(−VY)=VR−VY

Applying parallelogram law to obtain the magnitude of this, we get,

VRY=V2R+V2Y+2VRVYcos60∘−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√VRY=VR2+VY2+2VRVYcos60∘

⇒VRY=V2ph+V2ph+2V2phcos60∘−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=3–
√Vph⇒VRY=Vph2+Vph2+2Vph2cos60∘=3Vph

Similarly,
VYB=VY−VB=3–√VphVYB=VY−VB=3Vph

VBR=VB−VR=3–√VphVBR=VB−VR=3Vph

∵VRY=VYB=VBR=VL=LineVoltage∵VRY=VYB=VBR=VL=LineVoltage

∴VL=3–√Vph∴VL=3Vph

Therefore, in a star connected system,

Line Voltage = √3 × Phase Voltage
Again, refer the circuit of star connected system, it can be seen that each line is in series with its individual
phase winding. Therefore, in a star connection, the line current in each line is equal to the current in the
corresponding phase winding.
Let IR, IY and IB being the currents in R, Y and B lines respectively. Since, the load is balanced, therefore,

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IR=IY=IB=Iph(say)IR=IY=IB=Iph(say)

Then,
IL=IphIL=Iph

⇒Line Current = Phase Current

Note – for a balanced star connected system, the vector sum of line current is equal to zero,
i.e.
IR+IY+IB=In=0IR+IY+IB=In=0

Where, In is the neutral current.

Delta Connected System

Let IRY, IYB and IBR are the phase current in delta connected system while IR, IY and IB being the line currents.

By referring the circuit and phasor diagram, it can be seen that current in each line is the vector difference
of corresponding phase currents and are given as,
IR=IBR−IRYIR=IBR−IRY

IY=IRY−IYBIY=IRY−IYB

IB=IYB−IBRIB=IYB−IBR

Now, the magnitude of current IR can be obtained by parallelogram law of vector addition, as follows,
IR=I2BR+I2RY+2IBRIRYcos60∘−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√IR=IBR2+IRY2+2IBRIRYcos60∘

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Assume the system is balanced, therefore,

|IRY|=|IBR|=|IYB|=Iph|IRY|=|IBR|=|IYB|=Iph

⇒IR=I2ph+I2ph+2I2phcos60∘−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=3–√Iph⇒IR=Iph2+Iph2+2Iph2cos60∘=3Iph

Similarly,
IY=3–√IphandIB=3–√IphIY=3IphandIB=3Iph

Since the system is balanced, therefore the current through each line will be the same, i.e.
IR=IY=IB=IL=LineCurrentIR=IY=IB=IL=LineCurrent

∴IL=3–√Iph∴IL=3Iph

⇒LineCurrent=3–√×PhaseCurrent⇒LineCurrent=3×PhaseCurrent

Since, neutral does not exist in a delta connected system, thus the phase voltage and line voltage are
same. Refer the circuit diagram,
VRY=VYB=VBR=VLVRY=VYB=VBR=VL

⇒VL=Vph⇒VL=Vph

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UNIT-III
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Dc Generator
• Principle of Operation
• Constructional Features
• EMF Equation
Dc Motor
• Principle of Operation
• Back EMF
• Torque Equation
Single Phase Transformer
• Principle of Operation
• Constructional Features
• EMF Equation
• Simple Problems

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DC GENERATOR
Principle of DC Generator

There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator.
Whatever may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An
AC generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these
generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts
magnetic lines of force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced
emf depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This
emf will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

1. a magnetic field
2. conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

Now we will go through working principle of DC generator. As, the working principle of ac generator
is not in scope of our discussion in this section.

Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between
two opposite poles of magnet.

Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal

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position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the
loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current
can be determined by Fleming’s right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger
and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the direction
of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S -
pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor. Now if we
apply this right-hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from
point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper
side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position).

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At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field.
Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop

comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal
position as shown in the figure beside.

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here and according to Fleming’s right hand rule, at this position current flows
from B to A and on other side from D to C.Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every
time the side AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front
of N pole, the current flows from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole
the current flows from C to D and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.

If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes
in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the
reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it flows
in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of principle
of DC generator.

Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring are
made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from each other.
The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip
ring segments.
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Working Principle of DC Generator

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in
contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in
the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed which
results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance
again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the
figure. This current is unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and b
from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the
lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
Construction of DC Generator
During explaining working principle of DC Generator, we have used a single loop DC
generator. But now we will discuss about practical construction of DC Generator.
A DC generator has the following parts

1. Yoke
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2. Pole of generator
3. Field winding
4. Armature of DC generator
5. Brushes of generator and Commentator
6. Bearing
Yoke of DC Generator
Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves two purposes,

1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than steel. But
for large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned, lighter cast steel or
rolled steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator. Normally larger yokes are formed by
rounding a rectangular steel slab and the edges are welded together at the bottom. Then feet, terminal
box and hangers are welded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
Let's first discuss about pole core of DC generator. There are mainly two types of construction
available.
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of a solid single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of annealed steel which are
riveted together. The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01". The pole core is
fixed to the inner periphery of the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke and into the pole body.
Since the poles project inwards they are called salient poles. The pole shoes are so typically shaped,
that, they spread out the magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Due to their larger cross-section they hold the pole coil at its position.
Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils are wound around the pole core. These are a simple coil of
insulated copper wire or strip, which placed on the pole which placed between yoke and pole shoes
as shown.
Armature Core
The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low
reluctance path for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator
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provides direct current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature. That is why,
cylindrical or drum shaped armature core is build up of circular laminated sheet. In every circular

lamination, slots are either die - cut or punched on the outer periphery and the key way is located on
the inner periphery as shown. Air ducts are also punched of cut on each lamination for circulation of
air through the core for providing better cooling. Up to diameter of 40", the circular stampings are cut
out in one piece of lamination sheet. But above 40", diameter, number of suitable sections of a circle
is cut. A complete circle of lamination is formed by four or six or even eight such segment.
Armature Winding

Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of
flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors of
the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined
with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature conductors placed
in it and secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges. Two types of armature windings are
used – Lap winding and Wave winding.
Commutator
The commentator plays a vital role in DC generator. It collects current from armature
and sends it to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts
it to direct current and then send it to external load. It is cylindrical structured and is build up of wedge-
shaped segments of high conductivity, hard drawn or drop forged copper. Each segment is insulated
from the shaft by means of insulated commutator segment shown below. Each commentator segment
is connected with corresponding armature conductor through segment riser or lug.
Brushes
The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function
of these carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes
are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder or brush box. As shown in figure, the brush face
is placed on the commutator segment which is attached to the brush holder.
Bearing

For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller bearing is used. The
bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
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Armature winding
Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two methods, lap
winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is merely due to the end connections and

commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to
know the following terminologies -

1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if there are 36
conductors and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil measured in terms
of armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between the second
conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil. OR it is the distance between two
coil sides that are connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called
as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between the beginning of
one coil and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant pitch of the coil.

Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex,
and this multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths.

Lap Winding and Wave Winding

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the
two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. The winding may be progressive
or retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The
opposite way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.

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In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies
an almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all
the coils which carry e.m.f in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram shows
a part of simplex wave winding.

Basis For Comparison Lap Winding Wave Winding

Definition The coil is lap back to the The coil of the winding form
succeeding coil. the wave shape.
Connection The end of the armature coil is The end of the armature coil is
connected to an adjacent segment on connected to commutator
the commutators. segments some distance apart.
Parallel Path The numbers of parallel path are The number of parallel paths
equal to the total of number poles. is equal to two.
Other Name Parallel Winding or Multiple Two-circuit or Series
Winding Winding.
EMF Less More
Number of Brushes Equal to the number of parallel Two
paths.

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Types Simplex and Duplex lap winding. Progressive and

Retrogressive wave winding
Efficiency Less High
Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil
Winding Cost High (because more conductor is Low
required)
Uses In low voltage, high current In high voltage, low current
machines. machines.

EMF Equation of a DC Generator

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,
P = number of field poles
Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)

Now,
▪ Average emf generated per conductor is given by dΦ/dt (Volts) ... eq. 1
▪ Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),
▪ Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60
▪ Therefore, time for one revolution = dt = 60/N (Seconds)
▪ From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = dΦ/dt = PΦN/60 (Volts) …..(eq. 2)

Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors are
connected in series per parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to the
generated emf across any parallel path.
Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A
For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
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Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P

For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120

DC MOTOR
Working or Operating Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts electrical energy (direct current
system) into mechanical energy. It is of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally

important for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been
discussed in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of DC motor we need to first
look into its constructional feature.
The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected to
the supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed in between north
south poles of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.

As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due
to electromagnetic effect of the magnet. Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC
motor its important that we have a clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the
direction of force acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.

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If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current
carrying conductor. Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of our left hand perpendicular to each other, in such a way that the middle finger is along the

direction of current in the conductor, and index finger is along the direction of magnetic field i.e. north
to south pole, then thumb indicates the direction of created mechanical force. For clear understanding
the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram
below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the influence
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of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is
given by:-

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From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the
direction of current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence
the force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right
hand side of the armature conductor to be -I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction with
respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

Therefore, we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the armature
turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of the
armature conductor.
Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α (alpha) with its
initial position.
The torque produced is given by,

Where, α (alpha) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the
initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.

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The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the torque at
all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α (alpha). To explain the
variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise analysis.

Step 1:
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle α = 0.

Since, α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum
given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into rotation.

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Step 2:
Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the armature and its
reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90o from its
initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of torque.
The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than 0o.

Step 3:
In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor is
exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90o, and as a result the term cosα = 0.
The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

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i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does not
come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of DC motor has been engineered in
such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null torque.
Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual position of the armature and the
initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.
Torque Equation of DC Motor
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors
carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus each conductor

experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its center.
Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts rotating. The term torque
as best explained by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause
a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of a force
that produces or changes a rotational motion.
The equation of torque is given by,

The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very important
parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to understand the torque equation of DC
motor for establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor, and its

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voltage equation.

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Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf produced and
Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the voltage equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC motor we multiply both
sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Now I 2.R is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective mechanical
a a

power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles,
φ is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the DC motor.

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Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and subtracting the
mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore,

\This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only flux
φ and armature current Ia.

The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

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Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only fluxφ and
armature current Ia.

TRANSFORMER

Introduction

The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always work at
the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It is commonly
used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can change the magnitude of alternating voltage
or current from one value to another. This useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the
widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted
and distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in
construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%.

Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage
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of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists of two
windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core as shown in Fig 1. The
winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is
called secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is
applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is
induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2.
Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Constructional Details

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are placed on the
core, and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called

(a) Core type

(b) Shell type.

Core-type and Shell-type Construction

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric cylindrical coils
placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as the high- voltage (HV)
winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The LV winding is placed

next to the core for economy in insulation cost. Figure 2.1(a) shows the cross- section of the arrangement. In
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the shell type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound over the central limb of a three-
limb core as shown in Figure 2.1(b). The HV and LV windings are split into a number of sections, and the
sections are interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the HV and LVwindings are placed alternately.

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This helps in
reducing the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in construction of the transformer. The steel used
for core is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low hysteresis
loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel. Conductor material
used for windings is mostly copper. However, for small distribution transformer aluminum is also sometimes
used. The conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using various insulating materials depending
upon the voltage.
Insulating Oil
In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed in insulating oil. The
insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation from moisture and transfers the heat produced in
core and windings to the atmosphere.
The transformer oil should possess the following qualities:
(a) High dielectric strength, (b)Low
viscosity and high purity,(c)High flash
point, and
(d)Free from sludge.
Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Tank and Conservator
The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating oil. In large transformers small
expansion tank is also connected with main tank is known as conservator. Conservator provides space when
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insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is provided with tubes on the outside, to permits
circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are
connected with main tank. Buchholz relay is placed between main tank and conservator. It protect the
transformer under extreme heating of transformer winding. Breather protects the insulating oil from moisture
when the cool transformer sucks air inside. The silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air enters the
tank. Some other necessary parts are connected with main tank like, Bushings, Cable Boxes, Temperature
gauge, Oil gauge, Tapings, etc.
Principle of Operation
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is set up in the core. This
alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer. If N2 <
N1, then E2 < E1(or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.
If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow
through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another with a
change in voltage level.
The following points may be noted carefully
(a)The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(b)There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.

(c) The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(d) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input power.(e)The
losses that occur in a transformer are:
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(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses

(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary power.In other
words, a transformer has very high efficiency
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in Fig.2.3.The
sinusoidal flux ϕ produced by the primary can be represented as:
ϕ=ϕm sinωt
When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it is circulating alternating current,producing
an alternating flux ϕ.

ϕ - Flux
ϕm - maximum value of flux , N1 -
Number of primary turns ,
N2 - Number of secondary turns
f - Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 - R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f ,E2 - R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.fThe
instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is –

The flux increases from zero value to maximum value ϕm in 1/4f of the time period that is in 1/4fseconds.
The change of flux that takes place in 1/4f seconds = ϕm - 0 = ϕm webersVoltage Ratio
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Voltage transformation ratio is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
e.m.f induced in the primary winding.
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is known as voltage transformationratio

1. If N2>N1 i.e. K>1 we get E2>E1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.
2. If N2< N1 i.e. K<1 we get E2< E2 then the transformer is called step down transformer.
3. If N2= N1 i.e. K=1 we get E2= E2 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
Transformer.

Current Ratio
Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I1) to the currentflowing
through the secondary winding (I2). In an ideal transformer -
Apparent input power = Apparent output power.V1I1 =
V2I2

Volt-Ampere Rating
i) The transformer rating is specified as the products of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii) On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally expressed inKVA
(Kilo Volts Amperes rating)
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Unit IV Diodes & Rectifiers

PN JUNCTION DIODE
Introduction:
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators, semiconductors,
andconductors.

Band structure of a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance
band is the range of electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to
the electric current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where
electrons are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of
charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band gap. It is
the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the energy required for
a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Insulator:

1. An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of current. Examples are Paper, Mica, Wood, Rubber
etc.
2. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an
insulator is shown in the fig.1.1.
3. For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because of
this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor. Even an
increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to CB.

Fig: 1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

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Conductors:
1. A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is applied across its
terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold.
2. The resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm.
3. The Valance and conduction bands overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move
from valance band to conduction band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even
at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore at room temperature when electric field is applied large
current flows through the conductor.
Semiconductor:
1. A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the insulator and conductor.
The resistivity level is in the range of and 104 Ω-cm to 10-3 Ω-cm.
2. Two of the most commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.).
Both have 4 valance electrons.
3. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and GaAs is 1.21,
0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K).
4. At 0K the semi conductors acting as insulators but at room temperature they are acting as a semi
conductors due to thermal ionization.
Semiconductor Types:

Intrinsic semiconductor:
1. A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor.
2. Conduction in intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most
important semiconductors used.
3. Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4 electrons
are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig. 1.2a
shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.
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(b)
Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K, 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room temperature0K

4. At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown in fig 1.2b. The
valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are available for
conduction.
5. The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as hole which
is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that of free electron.
6. When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in the
neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill a hole
moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position may now be filled by an
electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly move one more step in the
direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a mechanism for
conduction of electricity which does not involve free electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of current at
room temperature. To improve the conduction small impurities are added that adding is called doping. By
adding impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor.

N type semiconductor:

1. If the added impurity is a penta valent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called N-type
semiconductor. Examples of penta valent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony etc.

2. A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.3a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity atom(antimony) forms
covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms.
3. The fifth electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily excited
from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increasing the thermal
energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very small of the order of
0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
4. In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those available in
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an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons present increases
the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by electrons which are
referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc.

P type semiconductor:

1. If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor.
Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium, indium etc.
2. The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.3c. The three valance electrons of the impurity (boon)
forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the fourth bond giving rise
to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring atoms.
3. Each trivalent atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes in the valance
band. At the same time the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of
increased recombination due to creation of additional holes.

4. Thus in P type sc, holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each trivalent impurity
atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The following fig 1.3d shows the
pictorial representation of P type sc.

4.1.4 Comparison between Conductor, Semi conductor & Insulator:

Characteri Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
stics
A conductor is a An insulator is
A semiconductor is a material
material that allows the a material that
Definition whose conductivity lies
flow of charge when does not allow
between conductor &
applied with a the flow of
voltage. insulator current.
The resistance of asemiconductor decrease with incre
zero. Insulator has
The resistance of a
Temperature very high
conductor increases with
Dependence resistance but it
an increase in
still decreases
temperature.
with
temperature.
The conductors They have
They have very low co
have very high intermediate conductivity
/m), thus they
Conductivit conductivity (10- 7 Ʊ ((10-7 Ʊ /m to 10- 13 Ʊ /m),
do not allow
y /m), thus they can thus they can acts as insulator
current flow.
conduct electrical & conductor at different
current conditions.
easily.
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There are no
The conduction in conductors
The is dueconduction
to the free electrons
in in metal bonding.
free electrons or
Conduction semiconductor is due to the
holes thus,
movement of electron &
there is no
holes.
conduction.
The band gap in
There is no or low
The band gap of insulator is
energy gap between the
semiconductor is greater than huge (+5 eV),
conduction & valance
Band gap the conductor but smaller which need an
band of a conductor. It
than an insulator i.e. 1 eV. enormous
does not need extra
Their electrons need a little amount of
energy for the conduction
energy for conduction state. energy like
state.
lightning to
push electrons
into
the conduction
band.
-5 -5 5 5
Resistivity Low (10 Ω/m) Normal(10 Ω/m to 10 Ω/m) Very High (10
Ω/m)
The coefficient
It has positive of resistivity of
Coefficient Ithas negative coefficient
coefficient of resistivity an insulator is
of resistivity.
i.e. its resistance also negative
of Resistivity
increase with but it has very
temperature huge resistance.
Some special
The
conductors turn into
The semiconductors turn insulat
Absolute superconductors when
into insulator at absolute zero. or’s resistance
Zero super cooled down to
increase when
absolute zero while
cooled down to
other
have finite resistance. absolute zero.
Valence 1 Valence electron in outer shell. 8 Valence electron in
4 Valence electron in outer
Electron in outer shell.
shell.
Outer Shell
Silicon, Germanium,
Rubber, Glass,
Gold, Copper, Silver, Selenium, Antimony, Gallium
Examples Wood, Air,
Aluminum etc Arsenide (known as semi
Mica, Plastic,
insulator),Boron
Paper etc.
etc.
The insulators are
The metals like iron & Semiconductors are used used for
copper etc. that can every day electronic devices protection against
Application conduct electricity are such as cellphone, computer, high voltages &
made into wires and solar panel etc as switches, prevention of
cable for carrying electric energy converter, amplifiers, electrical short
current. etc. between cables in
circuits.

THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:

1. If p-type semiconductor is joined with n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The region in
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which the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined is called p-n junction. This p-n junction separates n-
type semiconductor from p-type semiconductor. This p-n junction forms a most
popular semiconductor device known as diode.

Fig 1.4 P N Junction

2. Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The
crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side
(called the cathode), but not in the opposite direction.

Symbol of PN junction diode:

Fig 1.5 P N Junction Diode Symbol

Biasing:
“Biasing” is providing minimum external voltage and current to activate the device to study its
characteristics.

There are two operating regions and two "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode and they are:

Zero Bias:
The p-n Junction in which no external voltage is applied is called zero bias p-n junction. Zero bias p-n
Junction is also called as unbiased p-n junction. The free electrons from n-side attracted towards the holes at
p-side. Thus, the free electrons move from n-side to p-side. Similarly, holes move from p-side to n-side.
Each free electron that is crossing the junction from n-side to fill the hole in p-side atom creates a negative
ion at p-side. Similarly, each free electron that left the parent atom at n-side to fill the hole in p- side atom
creates a positive ion at n-side. The net negative charge at p-side of the p-n junction prevents further flow of
free electrons crossing from n-side to p-side because the negative charge present at the p- side of the p-n
junction repels the free electrons. Similarly, the net positive charge at n-side of the p-n
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junction prevents further flow of holes from p-side to n-side. Thus, immobile positive charge at n-side and
immobile negative charge at p-side near the junction acts like a barrier or wall and prevent the further flow
of free electrons and holes. The region near the junction where flow of charges carriers are decreased over a
given time and finally results in empty charge carriers or full of immobile charge carriers is called depletion
region. The depletion region is also called as depletion zone, depletion layer, space charge region, or space
charge layer. The depletion region acts like a wall between p-type and n- type semiconductor and prevents
further flow of free electrons and holes. The deplection voltage is in between 0.3V to 0.7V.

Fig 1.6 Formation of Depletion Layer

Forward Bias:
1. In forward biased p-n junction diode p-type connected to positive terminal and n-type connected to negative
terminal of the source, anode terminal is a positive terminal whereas cathode terminal is negative terminal.
2. When P type is connected to positive then the holes are repelled by the positive charge and moved towards
the junction similarly when N type is connected to negative terminals electrons are repelled by Negative
charge and moves towards Junction then by increasing supply force of repletion increases slowly the
depletion layer width reduces then after some time conduction of charge is there through the diode in
forward bias mode.

Reverse Bias:
1. In reverse biased p-n junction diode p-type connected to Negative terminal and n-type connected to positive
terminal of the source, anode terminal is a positive terminal whereas cathode terminal is negative terminal.
2. This is called reverse bias mode, in this mode due to the attraction of negative charge and P type and
positive charge and N type the depletion layer width increases then the diode does not conducts in reverse
bias mode of operation it is acting as open switch in reverse bias mode.
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Silicon and germanium semiconductor diodes

• For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium.

• The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at high temperature than the
germanium semiconductor diodes.
• Forward bias voltage for silicon semiconductor diode is approximately 0.7 volts whereas for germanium
semiconductor diode is approximately 0.3 volts.
• Silicon semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage applied on the silicon
diode is less than 0.7 volts.
• Germanium semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage applied on the
germanium diode is less than 0.3 volts.
• The cost of silicon semiconductors is low when compared with the germanium semiconductors.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a pn junction or semiconductor diode is the curve between
voltage across the junction and the current through the circuit. Normally the voltage is taken along the x-
axis and current along y-axis.The circuit connection for determining the V-I characteristics of a pn
junction is shown in the figure below.

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Fig.1.7: Circuit Connection for V-I characteristics of a pn junction The

characteristics can be explained under three cases, such as:

• Zero bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
Case-1 : Zero Bias

In zero bias condition , no external voltage is applied to the pn junction i.e the circuit is open at K.Hence,
the potential barrier (ref :pn junction tutorial for better understanding) at the junction does not permit current
flow.

Therefore, the circuit current is zero at V=0 V, as indicated by point O in figure below.

Fig.1.8: V-I Characteristics of pn Junction

Case-2: Forward Bias

1. In forward biased condition, p-type of the pn junction is connected to the positive terminal and n-type is connected
to the negative terminal of the external voltage.
2. This results in reduced potential barrier.

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3. At some forward voltage i.e 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier is almost eliminated and the current
starts flowing in the circuit.
4. Form this instant, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Hence. a curve OB is obtained with
forward bias as shown in figure above.
5. From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first i.e. region OA , the current increases very slowly and
the curve is non-linear. It is because in this region the external voltage applied to the pn junction is used in
overcoming the potential barrier.
6. However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the potential barrier is eliminated and
the pn junction behaves as an ordinary conductor. Hence , the curve AB rises very sharply with the increase in
external voltage and the curve is almost linear.

Case-3 : Reverse Bias

1. In reverse bias condition, the p-type of the pn junction is connected to the negative terminal and n-type is
connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.
2. This results in increased potential barrier at the junction.
3. Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high and as a result practically no current flows through the circuit.
4. However, a very small current of the order of μA , flows through the circuit in practice. This is knows as
reverse saturation current(IS) and it is due to the minority carriers in the junction.
5. As we already know, there are few free electrons in p-type material and few holes in n-type material. These free
electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers.
6. The reverse bias applied to the pn junction acts as forward bias to their minority carriers and hence, small current
flows in the reverse direction.
7. If the applied reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority carriers may become
high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atom.
8. At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur. This is characterized by a sudden increase of reverse current
and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.

Advantages of p-n junction diode:

P-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. However, diodes play a major
role in many electronic devices.

• A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct current (DC). These
diodes are used in power supply devices.
• If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if it is reverse biased, it blocks
the current flow. In other words, the p-n junction diode becomes on when it is forward biased whereas
the p-n junction diode becomes off when it is reversed biased (I.e. it acts as switch). Thus, the p-n
junction diode is used as electronic switch in digital logic circuits.

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Rectifiers:

In electronics, Rectifier circuit is the most used circuit because almost every electronic appliance
operates on DC (Direct Current) but the availability of the DC Sources are limited such as electrical
outlets in our homes provide AC (Alternating current). The rectifier is the perfect candidate for this job
in industries & Home to convert AC into DC. Even our cell phone chargers use rectifiers to
convert the AC from our home outlets to DC. Different types of Rectifiers are used for specific
applications.

Classification of Rectifiers:

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.

1) Half - Wave Rectifier

2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier

Half-Wave Rectifier:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 1.9 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating
voltage using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Fig 1.9(a) Half wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

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Fig 1.9(b) Half wave Rectifier wave forms

1. The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-n
junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer.
2. V=Vm sin (wt) is the input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:

For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts. Now a
current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode current (or)
load current is shown in fig 1.9

For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not Conduct. Now no
current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no power is delivered to the
load.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier:

1. Only one diode is sufficient.
2. The circuit is easy to design.
3. No center tap transformer is necessary.
Disadvantages of half-wave rectifier:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.

Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a power rectifier
circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied
ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The
diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the
one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with
respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the
fig 1.10 below

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Fig 1.10(a) Full wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Fig 1.10(b) Full wave Rectifier wave forms

Operation:

During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same time
the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load current
flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

Advantages:

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)

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3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.693 (0.287 for HWR)

4) No core saturation problem

Disadvantages

1) Requires center tapped transformer.

Bridge Rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

Fig 1.11(a) Bridge Rectifier Circuit Diagram

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in
series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below

The Positive Half-cycle:

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The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the
average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current
flows through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage
drops ( 2 x
0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency
(e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply).
Advantages:

1. No center taped Transformer.

2. The transformer gets utilized effectively.

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Comparison of Rectifiers:

SN
Parameter Half Wave Full Wave Bridge
O

Circuit
1
Diagra
m

Number
2 1 2 4
of
Diodes
Maximum 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
3 load 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑠 + 2𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
Current
𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
4 I dc 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
5 V dc 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
6 I rms 2 √2 𝜋
7 Pdc Im2RL/Π2 4Im2RL/ Π2 4Im2RL/ Π2
8 Pac Im2(RL+RF+RS)/4 Im2(RL+RF+RS)/2 Im2(RL+2RF+RS
)/2
Maxim
9 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
um
Efficien
cy
Ripple
10 1.21 0.482 0.482
Factor
11 PIV Vm 2Vm Vm
Ripple
12. f 2f F
Frequen
cy
13 TUF 0.287 0.693 0.812

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Zener Diode:

What is Zener Diode?

Zener diode is defined as The semiconductor which is heavily doped to operate in reverse
direction or inbreakdown region.
The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its Cathode, it
behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage
reaches a predetermined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
Zener Diode Symbol
The symbol for Zener diode is represented as below,

Zener Diode Circuit

We can define Zener diode as a single diode connected in a reverse bias. It can be connected
in reverse bias positive as in the circuit shown below:

Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode. When the Zener
diode is connected, in forward bias, diode acts as a normal diode. But Zener breakdown

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voltage occurs when the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage.

Working of Zener Diode

The basic principle behind Zener diode working is based on the cause of breakdown when the
diode is in the reverse biased condition. For a Zener diode there are two types of breakdown:

• Zener breakdown
• Avalanche breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

• A conventional reverse biased diode, when subjected to its breakdown voltage allows a significant
amount of current. But when this reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded, the diode experiences
an avalanche breakdown.
• When we increase the voltage through Zener in reverse bias mode, first current increases
uniformly with it but after it reaches the breakdown state, the current increases massively for a
very small or negligible change in voltage. The change is sharper in Zener than the normal
diode.
Causes of Breakdown

• The breakdown is caused by two effects, the Avalanche effect and the Zener effect. The
Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect takes over above
that.
• They are both similar effects, the difference being that Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon
and the avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in the valence band like in any electric
current.
• Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than the Zener effect.

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UNIT V

TRANSISTORS

A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage

flow and acts as a switch or gate for signals

Uses of a transistor

• A transistor acts as an Amplifier, where the signal strength has to be increased.

• A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options.
• It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor:

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the
three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of
transistors. They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two Ptypes and the
other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter,

Base and Collector terminals. They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter

• The left-hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
• This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
• As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
• This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base

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• The middle material in the above figure is the Base.

• This is thin and lightly doped.
• Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
• This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector

• The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
• Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
• This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
• This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector
of a transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions
of emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept
in mind while using a transistor.
In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification.
The PNP and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following image shows
how different practical transistors look like.
We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As
one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and
likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.

Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function
of both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The
figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

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By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

• The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive supply to
make the circuit Forward bias.
• The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative supply to
make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has to
be applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation of PNP Transistor

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure,
in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

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The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-
type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a
very low percent of holes re-combine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low
current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills
the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows
through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a
hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Hence we can understand that −
• The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
• The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation of NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following
figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.

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The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in
the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.
There, a very low percent of electrons re-combine with free holes of P-region. This provides very
low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This
flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −
• The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
• The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages of Transistors
There are many advantages of using a transistor, such as −
• High voltage gain.
• Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
• Most suitable for low power applications.
• Smaller and lighter in weight.
• Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
• No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
• Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to
lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.

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Transistor Amplifier
A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage
applied to the emitter base junction makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward
bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how a transistor
looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit lets any small change in input signal to result in an
appreciable change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the
collector current, which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop
across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.
Performance of Amplifier
As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first understand a few
important terms with reference to this mode of connection.
Input Resistance
As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The input resistance
is the opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal flow.
By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting
change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage.
ΔVBE
Input resistance, Ri= ΔIB

Where Ri = input resistance, VBE = base-emitter voltage, and IB = base current.

Output Resistance
The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current changes
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very slightly with the change in collector-emitter voltage.

By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the resulting
change in collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.
Output resistance = RO = ΔVCE/ ΔIC
Where Ro = Output resistance, VCE = Collector-emitter voltage, and IC = Collector-emitter voltage.
Current Gain:

The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents are observed is
called as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the
change in base current (ΔIB).
Current gain, β = ΔIc/ ΔIB

The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current becomes
β times in the collector current.

Voltage Gain

The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is
called as Voltage gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVCE) to the change
in input voltage (ΔVBE).
Voltage gain, AV = ΔVCE/ΔVBE

Change in output current × effective load

=
Change in input current × input resistance

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= (ΔIc X R ac )/ ΔIb X R i

= β x (Rac/Ri)
For a single stage, RAC = RC.,

Power Gain:

The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is
calledas Power gaiin.
By definition, it is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal power.
= Current gain × Voltage gain

Hence these are all the important terms which refer the performance of amplifiers.
Transistor Configurations: Any transistor has three terminals, emitter, base, and collector.
Using these 3terminals the transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to
both input and output in three different possible configurations.
The three types of configurations are Common Emitter, Common Base, and Common Collector
configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased.
Transistor Characteristics are the plots which represent the relationships between the current
and the voltages of a transistor in a particular configuration. By considering the transistor
configuration circuits to be analogous to two-port networks, they can be analyzed using the
characteristic-curves which can be of the following types

1. Input Characteristics: These describe the changes in input current with the variation in the
values of input voltage keeping the output voltage constant.
2. Output Characteristics: This is a plot of output current versus output voltage with constant
input current.
3. Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve shows the variation of output
current in accordance with the input current, keeping output voltage constant.

Common Base (CB) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in thefigure.

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For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to contribute
collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.
For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to contribute
collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.

In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be common between the input and the
output terminals as shown in Figure. This configuration offers low input impedance, high output
impedance, high resistance gain and high voltage gain.

Figure 2 below shows the input characteristics of a CB configuration circuit which describes the
variation of emitter current, IE with Base-Emitter voltage, VBE keeping Collector-Base voltage,
VCB constant.

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This leads to the expression for the input resistance as

Current Transfer Characteristics for CB Configuration of Transistor

Figure 4 below shows the current transfer characteristics for CB configuration which illustrates
the variation of IC with the IE keeping VCB as a constant. The resulting current gain has a value
less than 1 and can be mathematically expressed as

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Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the

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base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.
In this configuration, the emitter terminal is common between the input and the output terminals
as shown in Figure. This configuration offers medium input impedance, medium output
impedance, medium current gain and voltage gain.
Input Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor
Figure 10 shows the input characteristics for the CE configuration of transistor which illustrates
the variation in IB in accordance with VBE when VCE is kept constant.

From the graph shown in Figure 10 above, the input resistance of the transistor can be obtained as

Output Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor

The output characteristics of CE configuration (Figure 11) are also referred to as collector
characteristics. This plot shows the variation in IC with the changes in VCE when IB is held constant.
From the graph shown, the output resistance can be obtained as

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Current Transfer Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor

This characteristic of CE configuration shows the variation of IC with IB keeping VCE as a constant.
This can be mathematically given by

This ratio is referred to as common-emitter current gain and is always greater than 1.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.

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Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the base
current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.
This transistor configuration has the collector terminal of the transistor common between the input
and the output terminals and is also referred to as emitter follower configuration.
This offers high input impedance, low output impedance, voltage gain less than one and a large current
gain.

Input Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor

Figure 6 shows the input characteristics for CC configuration which describes the variation in I B in
accordance with VCB, for a constant value of Collector-Emitter voltage, VCE.

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Output Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor

Figure 7 below shows the output characteristics for the CC configuration which exhibit the variations in
IE against the changes in VCE for constant values of IB.

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Current Transfer Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor

This characteristic of CC configuration (Figure 8) shows the variation of I E with IB keeping VCE as a
constant.

Current Amplification Factor (γ)

The ratio of change in emitter current (ΔIE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) is known as Current
Amplification factor in common collector (CC) configuration. It is denoted by γ.

γ=ΔIE/ΔIB

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FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

INTRODUCTION

1. The Field effect transistor is abbreviated as FET, it is an another semiconductor device like a
BJT which can be used as an amplifier or switch.
2. The Field effect transistor is a voltage operated device. Whereas bipolar junction transistor
is a current controlled device. Unlike BJT a FET requires virtually no input current.
3. This gives it an extremely high input resistance, which is its most important advantage over
a bipolar transistor.
4. FET is also a three terminal device, labeled as source, drain and gate.
5. The source can be viewed as BJT’s emitter, the drain as collector, and the gate as the
counter part of the base.
6. The material that connects the source to drain is referred to as the channel.

7. FET operation depends only on the flow of majority carriers ,therefore they are called uni
polar devices. BJT
8. operation depends on both minority and majority carriers.
9. As FET has conduction through only majority carriers it is less noisy than BJT.

10. FETs are much easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for ICs because they occupy
less space than BJTs.
11. FET amplifiers have low gain bandwidth product due to the junction capacitive effects and
produce more signal distortion except for small signal operation.
12. The performance of FET is relatively unaffected by ambient temperature changes. As it has a
negative temperature coefficient at high current levels, it prevents the FET from thermal
breakdown. The BJT has a positive temperature coefficient at high current levels which
leads to thermal breakdown.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FET:

There are two major categories of field effect transistors:

1. Junction Field Effect Transistors

2. MOSFETs

These are further sub divided in to P- channel and N-channel devices.

MOSFETs are further classified in to two types Depletion MOSFETs and Enhancement .
MOSFETs
The schematic symbols for the P-channel and N-channel JFETs are shown in the figure.

Fig 4.1 schematic symbols for the P-channel and N-channel JFET

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CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF N- CHANNEL FET

If the gate is an N-type material, the channel must be a P-type material.

CONSTRUCTION OF N-CHANNEL JFET

Fig 4.2 Construction of N-Channel JFET

A piece of N- type material, referred to as channel has two smaller pieces of P-type material attached to its
sides, forming PN junctions. The channel ends are designated as the drain and source. And the two pieces of P-
type material are connected together and their terminal is called the gate. Since this channel is in the N-type
bar, the FET is known as N-channel JFET.
OPERATION OF N-CHANNEL JFET:-

The overall operation of the JFET is based on varying the width of the channel to control the drain current.
A piece of N type material referred to as the channel, has two smaller pieces of P type material attached to its
sites, farming PN –Junctions. The channel’s ends are designated the drain and the source. And the two pieces
of P type material are connected together and their terminal is called the gate. With the gate terminal not
connected and the potential applied positive at the drain negative at the source a drain current Id flows. When
the gate is biased negative with respective to the source the PN junctions are reverse biased and depletion
regions are formed. The channel is more lightly doped than the P type gate blocks, so the depletion regions
penetrate deeply into the channel. Since depletion region is a region depleted of charge carriers it behaves as
an Insulator. The result is that the channel is narrowed. Its resistance is increased and Id is reduced. When the
negative gate bias voltage is further increased, the depletion regions meet at the center and Id is cut off
completely.
There are two ways to control the channel width

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1. By varying the value of Vgs

2. And by Varying the value of Vds holding Vgs constant

1 By varying the value of Vgs :-

We can vary the width of the channel and in turn vary the amount of drain current. This can be done by
varying the value of Vgs. This point is illustrated in the fig below. Here we are dealing with N channel FET. So
channel is of N type and gate is of P type that constitutes a PN junction. This PN junction is always reverse
biased in JFET operation .The reverse bias is applied by a battery voltage Vgs connected between the gate and
the source terminal i.e positive terminal of the battery is connected to the source and negative terminal to
gate.

1) When a PN junction is reverse biased the electrons and holes diffuse across junction by
leaving immobile ions on the N and P sides , the region containing these immobile ions is
known as depletion regions.
2) If both P and N regions are heavily doped then the depletion region extends symmetrically
on both sides.
3) But in N channel FET P region is heavily doped than N type thus depletion region extends
more in N region than P region.
4) So when no Vds is applied the depletion region is symmetrical and the conductivity becomes
Zero. Since there are no mobile carriers in the junction.
5) As the reverse bias voltage is increases the thickness of the depletion region also increases.
i.e. the effective channel width decreases .
6) By varying the value of Vgs we can vary the width of the channel.

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2 Varying the value of Vds holding Vgs constant :-

1) When no voltage is applied to the gate i.e. Vgs=0 , Vds is applied between source and drain
the electrons will flow from source to drain through the channel constituting drain current
Id .
2) With Vgs= 0 for Id= 0 the channel between the gate junctions is entirely open .In response
to a small applied voltage Vds , the entire bar acts as a simple semi conductor resistor and
the current Id increases linearly with Vds .
3) The channel resistances are represented as rd and rs as shown in the fig.

4) This increasing drain current Id produces a voltage drop across rd which reverse biases the
gate to source junction,(rd> rs) .Thus the depletion region is formed which is not
symmetrical .
5) The depletion region i.e. developed penetrates deeper in to the channel near drain and less
towards source because Vrd >> Vrs. So reverse bias is higher near drain than at source.
6) As a result growing depletion region reduces the effective width of the channel. Eventually a
voltage Vds is reached at which the channel is pinched off. This is the voltage where the
current Id begins to level off and approach a constant value.
7) So, by varying the value of Vds we can vary the width of the channel holding Vgs constant.

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When both Vgs and Vds is applied:-

It is of course in principle not possible for the channel to close Completely and there by reduce the current Id
to Zero for, if such indeed, could be the case the gate voltage Vgs is applied in the direction to provide
additional reverse bias
1) When voltage is applied between the drain and source with a battery Vdd, the electrons
flow from source to drain through the narrow channel existing between the depletion
regions. This constitutes the drain current Id, its conventional direction is from drain to
source.
2) The value of drain current is maximum when no external voltage is applied between gate
and source and is designated by Idss.

3) When Vgs is increased beyond Zero the depletion regions are widened. This reduces the

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effective width of the channel and therefore controls the flow of drain current through the
channel.
4) When Vgs is further increased a stage is reached at which to depletion regions touch each
other that means the entire channel is closed with depletion region. This reduces the drain
current to Zero.

CHARACTERISTICS OF N-CHANNEL JFET

The family of curves that shows the relation between current and voltage are known as characteristic curves.
There are two important characteristics of a JFET.

1) Drain or VI Characteristics
2) Transfer characteristics
1. Drain Characteristics:-
2. Drain characteristics shows the relation between the drain to source voltage Vds and
drain current Id. In order to explain typical drain characteristics let us consider the curve with
Vgs= 0.V.
1) When Vds is applied and it is increasing the drain current ID also increases linearly up to
knee point.
2) This shows that FET behaves like an ordinary resistor.This region is called as ohmic region.
3) ID increases with increase in drain to source voltage. Here the drain current is increased
slowly as compared to ohmic region.

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4) It is because of the fact that there is an increase in VDS .This in turn increases the reverse
bias voltage across the gate source junction .As a result of this depletion region grows in
size thereby reducing the effective width of the channel.

5) All the drain to source voltage corresponding to point the channel width is reduced to a
minimum value and is known as pinch off.

6)The drain to source voltage at which channel pinch off occurs is called pinch off voltage(Vp).
PINCH OFF Region:-

1) This is the region shown by the curve as saturation region.

2) It is also called as saturation region or constant current region. Because of the channel is
occupied with depletion region , the depletion region is more towards the drain and less
towards the source, so the channel is limited, with this only limited number of carriers
are only allowed to cross this channel from source drain causing a current that is
constant in this region. To use FET as an amplifier it is operated in this saturation region.
3) In this drain current remains constant at its maximum value IDSS.

4) The drain current in the pinch off region depends upon the gate to source voltage and is
given by the relation
Id =Idss [1-Vgs/Vp]2
This is known as shokley’s relation.

BREAKDOWN REGION:-

1) The region is shown by the curve .In this region, the drain current increases rapidly as
the drain to source voltage is increased.
2) It is because of the gate to source junction due to avalanche effect.
3) The avalanche break down occurs at progressively lower value of VDS because the
reverse bias gate voltage adds to the drain voltage thereby increasing effective voltage
across the gate junctionThis causes

1. The maximum saturation drain current is smaller

2. The ohmic region portion decreased.
4) It is important to note that the maximum voltage VDS which can be applied to FET is the
lowest voltage which causes available break down.

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3. TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-

These curves shows the relationship between drain current ID and gate to source voltage VGS for different
values of VDS.
1) First adjust the drain to source voltage to some suitable value , then increase the gate to
source voltage in small suitable value.
2) Plot the graph between gate to source voltage along the horizontal axis and current ID on
the vertical axis. We shall obtain a curve like this.

Fig 4.5: Transfer characteristics of n-channel JFET

3) As we know that if Vgs is more negative curves drain current to reduce . where Vgs is
made sufficiently negative, Id is reduced to zero. This is caused by the widening of the
depletion region to a point where it is completely closes the channel. The value of Vgs at
the cutoff point is designed as Vgsoff
4) The upper end of the curve as shown by the drain current value is equal to Idss that is
when Vgs = 0 the drain current is maximum.

5) While the lower end is indicated by a voltage equal to Vgsoff

6) If Vgs continuously increasing , the channel width is reduced , then Id =0
7) It may be noted that curve is part of the parabola; it may be expressed as Id=Idss[1-
Vgs/Vgsoff]2

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Vp AND Vgsoff –

Vp is the value of Vgs that causes the JFET to become constant current component, It is measured at Vgs =0V
and has a constant drain current of Id =Idss .Where Vgsoff is the value of Vgs that reduces Id to approximately
zero.
Why the gate to source junction of a JFET be always reverse biased ?

The gate to source junction of a JFET is never allowed to become forward biased because the gate material is
not designed to handle any significant amount of current. If the junction is allowed to become forward biased,
current is generated through the gate material. This current may destroy the component.
There is one more important characteristic of JFET reverse biasing i.e. J FET ‘s have extremely high
characteristic gate input impedance. This impedance is typically in the high mega ohm range. With the
advantage of extremely high input impedance it draws no current from the source. The high input impedance
of the JFET has led to its extensive use in integrated circuits. The low current requirements of the component
makes it perfect for use in ICs. Where thousands of transistors must be etched on to a single piece of silicon.
The low current draw helps the IC to remain relatively cool, thus allowing more components to be placed in a
smaller physical area.
JFET PARAMETERS

The electrical behavior of JFET may be described in terms of certain parameters. Such parameters are
obtained from the characteristic curves.
A C Drain resistance(rd):

It is also called dynamic drain resistance and is the a.c.resistance between the drain and source terminal,when
the JFET is operating in the pinch off or saturation region.It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to
source voltage ∆Vds to the corresponding change in drain current ∆Id for a constant gate to source voltage
Vgs.
Mathematically it is expressed as rd=∆Vds/ ∆Id where Vgs is held constant.

TRANCE CONDUCTANCE (gm):

It is also called forward transconductance . It is given by the ratio of small change in drain current (∆Id) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage (∆Vds)
Mathematically the transconductance can be written as gm=∆Id/∆Vds
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR (µ)

It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage (∆Vds) to the corresponding change in gate to
source voltage (∆Vgs)for a constant drain current (Id).
Thus µ=∆Vds/∆Vgs when Id held constant

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The amplification factor µ may be expressed as a product of transconductance (gm)and ac drain resistance (rd)
µ=∆Vds/∆Vgs=gm rd

THE FET SMALL SIGNAL MODEL

The linear small signal equivalent circuit for the FET can be obtained in a manner similar to that used to derive
the corresponding model for a transistor.
We can express the drain current iD as a function f of the gate voltage and drain voltage Vds. Id =f(Vgs,Vds)
(1)
The transconductance gm and drain resistance rd:-

If both gate voltage and drain voltage are varied, the change in the drain current is approximated by using
taylors series considering only the first two terms in the expansion

∆id= |vds=constant .∆vgs |vgs=constant∆vds we can write ∆id=id

∆vgs=vgs

∆vds=vds

Id=gm v Vds→(1)

Where gm= |Vds |Vds

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gm= | Vds
Is the mutual conductance or transconductance .It is also called as gfs or yfs common source forward
conductance .
The second parameter rd is the drain resistance or output resistance is defined as

rd= |Vgs |Vgs= |Vgs rd= |Vgs

The reciprocal of the rd is the drain conductance gd .It is also designated by Yos and Gos and called the common
source output conductance . So the small signal equivalent circuit for FET can be drawn in two different ways.
1. small signal current –source model 2.small signal voltage-source model.
A small signal current –source model for FET in common source configuration can be drawn satisfying Eq→(1) as
shown in the figure(a)
This low frequency model for FET has a Norton’s output circuit with a dependent current generator whose
magnitude is proportional to the gate-to –source voltage. The proportionality factor is the transconductance
‘gm’. The output resistance is ‘rd’. The input resistance between the gate and source is infinite, since it is
assumed that the reverse biased gate draws no current. For the same reason the resistance between gate and
drain is assumed to be infinite.
The small signal voltage-source model is shown in the figure(b).

This can be derived by finding the Thevenin’s equivalent for the output part of fig(a) .

These small signal models for FET can be used for analyzing the three basic FET amplifier configurations:
1.common source (CS) 2.common drain (CD) or source follower

3. common gate(CG).

Fig 4.6 (a)Small Signal Current source model for FET (b)Small Signal voltage source model for FET
Here the input circuit is kept open because of having high input impedance and the output circuit satisfies the
equation for ID

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MOSFET

We now turn our attention to the insulated gate FET or metal oxide semi conductor FET which is having the
greater commercial importance than the junction FET.
Most MOSFETS however are triodes, with the substrate internally connected to the source. The circuit symbols
used by several manufacturers are indicated in the Fig below.

Fig 4.7(a)Depletion type MOSFET

(
b) Enhancement type MOSFET

Both of them are P- channel

Here are two basic types of MOSFETS

(1) Depletion type (2) Enhancement type MOSFET.

D-MOSFETS can be operated in both the depletion mode and the enhancement mode. E MOSFETS are restricted
to operate in enhancement mode. The primary difference between them is their physical construction.
The construction difference between the two is shown in the fig given below.

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As we can see the D MOSFET have physical channel between the source and drain terminals(Shaded area)

The E MOSFET on the other hand has no such channel physically. It depends on the gate voltage to form a channel
between the source and the drain terminals.
Both MOSFETS have an insulating layer between the gate and the rest of the component. This insulating layer is
made up of SIO2 a glass like insulating material. The gate material is made up of
metal conductor .Thus going from gate to substrate, we can have metal oxide semi conductor which is
where the term MOSFET comes from.
Since the gate is insulated from the rest of the component, the MOSFET is sometimes referred to as an
insulated gate FET or IGFET.
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The foundation of the MOSFET is called the substrate. This material is represented in the schematic
symbol by the center line that is connected to the source.
In the symbol for the MOSFET, the arrow is placed on the substrate. As with JFET an arrow pointing in
represents an N-channel device, while an arrow pointing out represents p-channel device.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN N-CHANNEL MOSFET:-

The N- channel MOSFET consists of a lightly doped p type substance into which two heavily doped n+
regions are diffused as shown in the Fig. These n+ sections , which will act as source and drain.
A thin layer of insulation silicon dioxide (SIO2) is grown over the surface of the structure, and holes are
cut into oxide layer, allowing contact with the source and drain. Then the gate metal area is overlaid on
the oxide, covering the entire channel region.Metal contacts are made to drain and source and the
contact to the metal over the channel area is the gate terminal.The metal area of the gate, in conjunction
with the insulating dielectric oxide layer and the semiconductor channel, forms a parallel plate capacitor.
The insulating layer of sio2
Is the reason why this device is called the insulated gate field effect transistor. This layer results in an
extremely high input resistance (10 10 to 10power 15ohms) for MOSFET.

DEPLETION MOSFET

The basic structure of D –MOSFET is shown in the fig. An N-channel is diffused between source and drain
with the device an appreciable drain current IDSS flows foe zero gate to source voltage, Vgs=0.

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Depletion mode operation:-

1) The above fig shows the D-MOSFET operating conditions with gate and source terminals shorted
together(VGS=0V)

2) At this stage ID= IDSS where VGS=0V, with this voltage VDS, an appreciable drain current IDSS flows.

3) If the gate to source voltage is made negative i.e. VGs is negative .Positive charges are induced in the
channel through the SIO2 of the gate capacitor.

4) Since the current in a FET is due to majority carriers(electrons for an N-type material) , the induced
positive charges make the channel less conductive and the drain current drops as Vgsis made more
negative.

5) The re distribution of charge in the channel causes an effective depletion of majority carriers , which
accounts for the designation depletion MOSFET.

6) That means biasing voltage Vgs depletes the channel of free carriers This effectively reduces the width of
the channel , increasing its resistance.

7) Note that negative Vgs has the same effect on the MOSFET as it has on the JFET.

8) As shown in the fig above, the depletion layer generated by Vgs (represented by the white space between
the insulating material and the channel) cuts into the channel, reducing its width. As a result ,Id<Idss.The
actual value of ID depends on the value of Idss,Vgs(off) and Vgs.

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Enhancement mode operation of the D-MOSFET:-

1) This operating mode is a result of applying a positive gate to source voltage Vgs to the device.
2) When Vgs is positive the channel is effectively widened. This reduces the resistance of the channel
allowing ID to exceed the value of IDSS
3) When Vgs is given positive the majority carriers in the p-type are holes. The holes in the p type substrate
are repelled by the +ve gate voltage.
4) At the same time, the conduction band electrons (minority carriers) in the p type material are attracted
towards the channel by the +gate voltage.
5) With the build up of electrons near the channel , the area to the right of the physical channel effectively
becomes an N type material.
6) The extended n type channel now allows more current, Id> Idss

Characteristics of Depletion MOSFET:-

The fig. shows the drain characteristics for the N channel depletion type MOSFET

1) The curves are plotted for both Vgs positive and Vgs negative voltages
.
2) When Vgs=0 and negative the MOSFET operates in depletion mode when Vgs is positive ,the MOSFET
operates in the enhancement mode.
3) The difference between JFET and D MOSFET is that JFET does not operate for positive values of Vgs.

4) When Vds=0, there is no conduction takes place between source to drain, if Vgs<0 and Vds>0 then Id
increases linearly.

5) But as Vgs,0 induces positive charges holes in the channel, and controls the channel width. Thus the
conduction between source to drain is maintained as constant, i.e. Id is constant.

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6) If Vgs>0 the gate induces more electrons in channel side, it is added with the free electrons generated by
source. again the potential applied to gate determines the channel width and maintains constant current
flow through it as shown in Fig

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TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-

The combination of 3 operating states i.e. Vgs=0V, VGs<0V, Vgs>0V is represented by the D MOSFET
transconductance curve shown in Fig.

1) Here in this curve it may be noted that the region AB of the characteristics similar to that of JFET.

2) This curve extends for the positive values of Vgs

3) Note that Id=Idss for Vgs=0V when Vgs is negative,Id< Idss when Vgs= Vgs(off) ,Id is reduced to
approximately omA.Where Vgs is positive Id>Idss.So obviously Idss is not the maximum possible value of
Id for a MOSFET.

4) The curves are similar to JFET so thet the D MOSFET have the same transconductance equation.

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E-MOSFETS

The E MOSFET is capable of operating only in the enhancement mode.The gate potential must be positive
w.r.t to source.

1) when the value of Vgs=0V, there is no channel connecting the source and drain materials.

2) As aresult , there can be no significant amount of drain current.

3) When Vgs=0, the Vdd supply tries to force free electrons from source to drain but the presence of p-
region does not permit the electrons to pass through it. Thus there is no drain current at Vgs=0,

4) If Vgs is positive, it induces a negative charge in the p type substrate just adjacent to the SIO2 layer.

5) As the holes are repelled by the positive gate voltage, the minority carrier electrons attracted toward this
voltage. This forms an effective N type bridge between source and drain providinga path for drain
current.

6) This +ve gate voltage forma a channel between the source and drain.

7) This produces a thin layer of N type channel in the P type substarate.This layer of free electrons is called
N type inversion layer.

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8) The minimum Vgs which produces this inversion layer is called threshold voltage and is designated by
Vgs(th).This is the point at which the device turns on is called the threshold voltage Vgs(th)
9) When the voltage Vgs is <Vgs (th) no current flows from drain to source.

10) How ever when the voltage Vgs > Vgs (th) the inversion layer connects the drain to source and we get
significant values of current.

CHARACTERISTICS OF E MOSFET:-

1. DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

The volt ampere drain characteristics of an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET are given in the

fig.

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2. TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-

1) The current Idss at Vgs≤ 0 is very small beinf of the order of a few nano amps.
2) As Vgs is made +ve , the current Id increases slowly at forst, and then much
more rapidlywith an increase in Vgs.
3) The standard transconductance formula will not work for the E MOSFET.
4) To determine the value of ID at a given value of VGs we must use the following
relation Id =K[Vgs-Vgs(Th)]2
Where K is constant for the MOSFET . found as

K=

From the data specification sheets, the 2N7000 has the following ratings.
Id(on)= 75mA(minimum).
And Vgs(th)=0.8(minimum)

APPLICATION OF MOSFET

One of the primary contributions to electronics made by MOSFETs can be found

in the area of digital (computer electronics). The signals in digital circuits are
made up of rapidly switching dc levels. This signal is called as a rectangular wave
,made up of two dc levels (or logic levels). These logic levels are 0V and +5V.
A group of circuits with similar circuitry and operating characteristics is referred
to as a logic family. All the circuits in a given logic family respond to the same
logic levels, have similar speed and power- handling capabilities , and can be
directly connected together. One such logic family is complementary MOS (or
CMOS) logic. This logic family is made up entirely of MOSFETs.
BIASING FET:-

For the proper functioning of a linear FET amplifier, it is necessary to maintain

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the operating point Q stable in the central portion of the pinch off region The Q
point should be independent of device parameter variations and ambient
temperature variations
This can be achieved by suitably selecting the gate to source voltage VGS and
drain current ID which is referred to as biasing
JFET biasing circuits are very similar to BJT biasing circuitsThe main difference
between JFET circuits and BJT circuits is the operation of the active components
themselves
There are mainly two types of Biasing circuits

1) Self bias
2) Voltage divider bias.

SELF BIAS
Self bias is a JFET biasing circuit that uses a source resistor to help reverse bias
the JFET gate. A self bias circuit is shown in the fig. Self bias is the most common
type of JFET bias. This JFET must be operated such that gate source junction is
always reverse biased. This condition requires a negative VGS for an N channel
JFET and a positive VGS for P channel JFET. This can be achieved using the self
bias arrangement as shown in Fig. The gate resistor RG doesn’t affect the bias
because it has essentially no voltage drop across it, and : the gate remains at 0V
.RG is necessary only to isolate an ac signal from ground in amplifier
applications. The voltage drop across resistor RS makes gate source junction
reverse biased.

For the dc analysis coupling capacitors are open circuits. For the N channel FET
in Fig (a)
IS produces a voltage drop across RS and makes the source positive w.r.t
ground. In any JFET circuit all the source current passes through the device to

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the drain circuit .This is due to the fact that there is no significant gate current.
We can define source current as IS = ID

(VG =0 because there is no gate current flowing in RG So VG across RG is zero)

VG =0 then VS= ISRS =ID RS
VGS = VG-VS =0-ID RS=- ID RS

DC analysis of self Bias:-

In the following DC analysis, the N channel J FET shown in the fig. is used for
illustration.

For DC analysis we can replace coupling capacitors by open circuits and we can
also replace the resistor RG by a short circuit equivalent.:. IG = 0.The relation
between ID and VGS is given by

Id=Idss[1- ]2 VGS for N channel JFET is =-

id Rs

Substuting this value in the above equation

Id=Idss[1- ]2

Id=Idss[1+ ]2
For the N-chanel FET in the above figure

s produces a voltage drop across Rs and makes the source positive w.r.t ground
in any JFET circuit all the source current passes through the device to drain
circuit this is due to the fact that there is no significant gate current. Therefore
we can define source current as Is=Id and Vg=0 then
Vs= Is Rs =IdRs

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Vgs=Vg-Vs=0-IdRs=-IdRs

Drawing the self bias line:-

Typical transfer characteristics for a self biased JFET are shown in the fig.

The maximum drain current is 5mA and the gate source cut off voltage is -3V.
This means the gate voltage has to be between 0 and -3V.

Now using the equation VGS = -IDRS and assuming RS of any suitable value we
can draw the self bias line.
Let us assume RS = 500Ω

With this Rs , we can plot two points corresponding to ID = 0 and Id = IDSS for ID
=0
VGS = -ID RS

VGS = 0X (500.Ω) = 0V

So the first point is (0 ,0)

( Id, VGS)
For ID= IDSS=5mA

VGS = (-5mA) (500 Ω) = -3V

So the 2nd Point will be (5mA,-3V)

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By plotting these two points, we can draw the straight line through the points.
This line will intersect the transconductance curve and it is known as self bias
line.The intersection point gives the operating point of the self bias JFET for the
circuit.
At Q point , the ID is slightly > than 2mA and VGS is slightly > -1V. The Q point
for the self bias JFET depends on the value of Rs.If Rs is large, Q point far down
on the transconductance curve ,ID is small, when Rs is small Q point is far up on
the curve , ID is large.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS:-

The fig. shows N channel JFET with voltage divider bias. The voltage at the
source of JFET must be more positive than the voltage at the gate in order to
keep the gate to source junction reverse biased. The source voltage is
VS = IDRS

The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following

equation using the voltage divider formula.
Vg= Vdd
For dc analysis

Applying KVL to the input circuit VG-VGS-VS =0

:: VGS = VG-Vs=VG-ISRS VGS = VG-IDRS :: IS = ID

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Applying KVL to the input circuit we get VDS+IDRD+VS-VDD =0

::VDS = VDD-IDRD-IDRS VDS = VDD-ID ( RD +RS )
The Q point of a JFET amplifier , using the voltage divider bias is IDQ = IDSS [1-
VGS/VP]2
VDSQ = VDD-ID ( RD+RS )

COMPARISON OF MOSFET WITH JFET

a) In enhancement and depletion types of MOSFET, the transverse electricfield

induced across an insulating layer deposited on the semiconductor material
controls the conductivity of the channel.
b) In the JFET the transverse electric field across the reverse biased PN junction
controls the conductivity of the channel.
c) The gate leakage current in a MOSFET is of the order of 10-12A. Hence the input
resistance of a MOSFET is very high in the order of 1010 to 1015 Ω. The gate
leakage current of a JFET is of the order of 10-9A., and its input resistance is of
the order of 108Ω.
d) The output characteristics of the JFET are flatter than those of the MOSFET, and
hence the drain resistance of a JFET (0.1 to 1MΩ) is much higher than that of a
MOSFET (1 to 50kΩ).
e) JFETs are operated only in the depletion mode. The depletion type MOSFET may
be operated in both depletion and enhancement mode.
f) Comparing to JFET, MOSFETs are easier to fabricate.

Special digital CMOS circuits are available which involve near zero power
dissipation and very low voltage and current requirements. This makes them
suitable for port

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