RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1. Solar
2. Wind
3. Hydroelectric
4. Geothermal
5. Biomass

Note: The class will focus only on the hydroelectric, wind and geothermal energy – the most common available
renewable energy resources in the country.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter. This heat
can be recovered using different geothermal technologies depending on the temperature. But the heat
resources in geothermal reservoirs are not inexhaustible.

Thermal Gradient
The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermos (heat). It covers all
techniques used to recover the heat that is naturally present in the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers,
the rock reservoirs that contain groundwater. About half this thermal (or ―heat‖) energy comes from the residual
heat produced when the planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural radioactivity.
The temperature of geothermal water increases with depth, depending on the thermal gradient — the
average rate at which the temperature rises with depth — of the region where it is found. The average value of
the gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100 meters of depth, but it varies between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters
depending on the physical conditions and geology of the region.

The Different Types of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal water, which determines what can
be done with it:
 At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal heating. This is called low-
temperature geothermal energy.
 At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It transfers its heat to another fluid,
which vaporizes at low temperature and drives a turbine to generate power. This is called medium-
temperature geothermal energy.
 At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it reaches the Earth’s surface. It
drives turbines to generate power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy.
The different temperature ranges are general, and practices may vary according to the economic
conditions of the particular location.

Availability of Geothermal Resources

 This heat varies in different areas. The average geothermal heat flow — the energy available for any
given surface area and period — on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square meter per
year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow received in a single year by the same surface area.
This is why priority is given to using heat resources in those areas that are most likely to provide
significant amounts of energy. These ―geothermal reservoirs‖ are found in all the Earth’s sedimentary
basins, but high-temperature geothermal energy is most likely to be found near volcanoes. In volcanic
areas, geothermal heat flow can reach 1 watt per square meter.
 Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than others. Their replenishment
capacity depends on:
 Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and residual heat.
 Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using heat
pumps. Ensuring that these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for geothermal heat
pumps: external factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the subsurface, meaning that less
heat is available to be harnessed.
 The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources located away from the
reservoir before returning to the reservoir.
 Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a reservoir in a sustainable manner. This
involves capping the amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the operation of the site.
 In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is geographically limited. Significant losses occur when
heat is transported over long distances. This can cause problems, because production sites cannot
always be located close enough to the place of consumption to meet energy needs.

How is heat from inside the earth tapped as a source of energy for human use?
• Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used directly to supply heat or can be converted to
mechanical or electrical energy.
 The picture shows the Negros
(Palinpinon) Geothermal Power
Plant, operated by the Energy
Development Corporation,
located at Valencia, Negros
Oriental, Philippines
http://geo-energy.org/images/
basics_clip_image002_ 0006.jpg

High-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power

• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy harnesses extremely hot water and steam from beneath
the Earth to generate electricity in dedicated power plants.

Global Resources
Global high-temperature geothermal energy resources used for power generation are found in a
relatively few countries, in areas characterized by volcanic activity. They are mainly located in Asia, the Pacific
islands, the African Great Lakes region, North America, the Andean countries of South America, Central
America and the Caribbean.
Around 20 countries in the world produce geothermal power, for a total installed capacity of 10.93 GW.
It plays an essential role in some countries like the Philippines, where it accounts for 17% of electricity
produced, and Iceland, where it represents 30%. Global installed capacity is projected to double by 2020.

Medium-Temperature Geothermal Power Plants

 Geothermal water at temperatures of 90 to 160°C can be used in liquid form to generate power; this is
called medium-temperature geothermal energy.
 This technology involves power plants that harness groundwater via geothermal wells. This type of
power plant is built near aquifers located at depths of 2,000 to 4,000 meters. In volcanic areas
(―hotspots‖), where the subsurface holds more heat, the water used by the power plants is sometimes
found closer to the surface, at depths of less than 1,000 meters.
 In these plants, water that has been pressurized to stop it boiling circulates through a heat exchanger.
This equipment contains pipes filled with geothermal water that are in contact with pipes filled with
another fluid, generally a hydrocarbon. When it comes into contact with the water-filled pipes, the fluid
heats up, boils and vaporizes. The steam obtained drives a turbine that generates power. In the
process, the steam cools, returning to its liquid state before being reused in another production cycle.
High-Temperature Geothermal Energy in Volcanic Areas
 If the geothermal water is hotter than 160°C, it can be used directly in the form of steam to drive
turbines and generate power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy. This principle was
applied as long ago as 1913 in the world’s very first geothermal power plant, in Larderello, Italy.
 This type of power plant uses water from water tables in volcanic regions, at depths of 1,500 to 3,000
meters. On very rare occasions, the water is present in the reservoir in the form of steam. In 95% of
cases, the water is liquid. The drop in pressure experienced by the liquid in the wells as it flows to the
surface causes some of the liquid to become vapor.
 At the surface, the liquid water is separated from the dry steam in a separator. The dry steam is fed to
the turbine, while the liquid water can be vaporized again by reducing its pressure even further. The
residual liquid water is injected back into the reservoir.
 Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy is used in a wide variety of applications. In industry,
for example, geothermal water and steam can be used to wash and dry wool. They can also be used to
manufacture pulp or treat biomass.

HYDROPOWER, the LEADING RENEWABLE ENERGY

 Water energy encompasses both plants installed on land — on rivers and lakes — and ocean energy,
which is still being developed and harnesses the force of waves, tides and currents. Widely used for
decades, hydropower plants are the world’s leading renewable energy source, producing 83% of
renewable power.
 The kinetic energy generated by moving water has been used by humankind for centuries, to drive
watermills that produce mechanical energy. Modern hydropower, sometimes referred to as ―white coal,"
is harnessed in plants where electricity is generated. Around 40 countries use hydropower to produce
more than a fifth of their electricity1. Hydropower accounts for 16% of electricity worldwide, behind coal
and gas, but ahead of nuclear.

From Dams to Plants

A hydroelectric power plant has three main components:
- A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water to supply the plant at all times. As well
as producing and storing energy, a dam also helps to regulate flooding.
- A penstock that channels water from its natural environment (river or lake) to supply the dam
reservoir. It may be an open channel, a tunnel or pipeline.
- A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the waterfall and the generator driven by the
turbines.

Types of Hydropower Plant

The type of plant varies with the site's configuration, the waterway and the intended use. Run-of-river
plants produce energy using the flow of the river. With dams less than 25 meters high, these ―small hydro‖
plants generate power continuously to meet daily needs.
Off-stream plants are modular, meaning that energy can be produced on demand, with dams used to
create reservoirs that can be released as required. On lakes, water falls from a significant height (over 300
meters); on locks, from between 20 and 300 meters.
 Pumped storage power plants are specifically designed for modular operation. They have two
reservoirs at different heights. When demand requires, water is released from the higher reservoir to the lower
reservoir. When there is excess production — for example, from wind or solar sources — the surplus electricity
is used to pump water into the higher reservoir.

Site Selection and Financing

First, the right topographical, geological and hydrographical conditions are required. The biggest
hydropower producers are countries crossed by fast-flowing rivers and mountainous countries. Gorges in rivers
are good places for building dams. Similarly, a large flat valley is ideal for holding water. There must be
sufficient rainfall in the catchment area (all upstream water).
Large and medium-size dams are very expensive to build. Governments are increasingly trying to
obtain funding from private sources or large international organizations such as the World Bank for these
projects. But because the payback period is seen as too long, hydropower projects have difficulty attracting
investors. The future of hydropower depends to a large extent on the persuasiveness of states and potential
public-private partnerships.

The Advantages of Hydropower

The water used to generate hydropower is renewable and storable, meaning it can be used at peak
consumption times and then reused. This way of storing potential energy is particularly efficient as a hydro
plant can reach its maximum rated capacity in just a few minutes. By way of comparison, a thermal energy
plant takes around 10 hours to reach full capacity and a nuclear reactor takes four times longer than that.
Hydropower is extremely efficient, with 90% of the water’s energy converted into electricity. In addition,
hydropower plants do not generate greenhouse gases and other emissions.
While construction is a capital intensive, operating and maintenance costs are low. Plants have an
extremely long life and the technology is highly reliable. In France alone, of the 60- odd large dams still in use,
many were built before 1960. The oldest, located in the Nièvre region, began operating in 1858.
With all these advantages, developing hydropower can only be beneficial. However, it still presents
difficulties.

WIND ENERGY
Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent events:
1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere
2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.

Wind flow patterns and speeds vary greatly and are modified by bodies of water, vegetation, and
differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite,
and even generating electricity.

The terms "wind energy" and "wind power" both describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy from the wind into
mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping
water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity.

A wind turbine turns energy in the wind into electricity using the aerodynamic force created by the rotor
blades, which work similarly to an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When the wind flows across the
blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the two sides
of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor to
spin. The rotor is connected to the generator, either directly (if it's a direct drive turbine) or through a shaft and
a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator. This
translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity.

Types of Wind Turbines

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups:
1. Horizontal-Axis Turbines: Horizontal-axis wind
turbines (pictured right) are what many people
picture when you think of wind turbines. They most
commonly have three blades and are operated
"upwind," with the turbine pivoting at the top of the
tower so the blades face into the wind.
2. Vertical-Axis Turbines: Vertical-axis wind turbines
(pictured left) come in several varieties, including the
eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its
French inventor. These turbines are omnidirectional,
meaning they don't need to be adjusted to point into
the wind to operate.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind-Generated Electricity

A Renewable Non-Polluting Resource

Wind energy is a free, renewable resource, so no matter how much is used today, there will still be
the same supply in the future. Wind energy is also a source of clean, non-polluting, electricity. Unlike
conventional power plants, wind plants emit no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. According to the U.S.
Department of Energy, in 1990, California's wind power plants offset the emission of more than 2.5 billion
pounds of carbon dioxide, and 15 million pounds of other pollutants that would have otherwise been produced.
It would take a forest of 90 million to 175 million trees to provide the same air quality.

Cost Issues
Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the technology
requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. Roughly 80% of the cost is the machinery,
with the balance being site preparation and installation. If wind generating systems are compared with fossil-
fueled systems on a "life-cycle" cost basis (counting fuel and operating expenses for the life of the generator),
however, wind costs are much more competitive with other generating technologies because there is no fuel to
purchase and minimal operating expenses.

Environmental Concerns
Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment compared to fossil fuel
power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts,
and birds and bats having been killed (avian/bat mortality) by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems
have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.

Supply and Transport Issues

The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that it is intermittent and does not always
blow when electricity is needed. Wind cannot be stored (although wind-generated electricity can be stored, if
batteries are used), and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands. Further,
good wind sites are often located in remote locations far from areas of electric power demand (such as
cities). Finally, wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land, and those alternative
uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation. However, wind turbines can be located on land
that is also used for grazing or even farming.

References:
Teaching Guide for Senior High School in Earth Science
https://www.awea.org/wind-101/basics-of-wind-energy
http://windeis.anl.gov/guide/basics/