Experiment #1; Half Wave Rectifier heel Design and Study of Half Wave Rectifier using Diodes, Also Measure the Effect of Filter Element on the DC Output and Ripple Factor * Oscilloscope * Resistors: 100, 2000, 3009, 4000 $002, 6002, 7000, 8000, 9002, 10000. fer 12V, Diode 1N4007 A rectifier is nothing but a simple diode or group of diodes that converts the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). We know that a diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks current in another direction. We are using this principle to construct various types of rectifiers. Rectifiers are classified into different types based on the number of diodes used in the circuit or the arrangement of diodes in the circuit. The basic types of rectifiers are: Half-wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier. We are going to cover the half-wave rectifier in detail in this experiment. 1S A half-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that converts the positive half cycle (positive current) of the input signal (current or voltage) into.a pulsating DC output signal. Alternating Current (AC) Pulsating Direct Current (DC) Positive haf cycle v Positive half cycle P-N Junction diode (basic rectifier) The half wave rectifier is made up of an AC source, transformer (step-down), diode, and resistor (load). The diode is placed between the Negitive half cycle * Digital Multimeter * Capacitors: 100pF, 200uF, 300yF, 400pF, 500uF, 600LF, 700pF, 800yF, 900pF, 1000pF * Connecting Wires transformer and resistor (load). This is si the Fig.1.1 Fig, 4.1: Positive half wave rectifier circuit ‘Where1= Cuneat D = Diode R, = Load resistor, T~ Transfon += Positive half ycle The AC source supplies alternating current to the circuit. The altemating current is often represented by a sinusoidal waveform. Usually inlaboratory, itis SOHz frequency waveform. A transformer is a device which reduces or increases the AC voltage. The step-down transformer reduces the AC voltage from high to low whereas the step-up transformer increases the AC voltage from low to high. Ina wave rectifier, we generally use a stepdown transformer because the voltage needed for the diode is very small. Applying a large AC voltage without using atransformer will permanently destroy the diode. So we use a stepdown transformer in a half-wave rectifier. However, in some cases, we use a step-up transformer. == Negative half cycle Quanta Publisher ‘Analog, Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeA diode is a two-terminal nonlinear device that allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current in another direction. This is a unidirectional device that conducts in one direction. Ee A resistor is an electronic component that restricts the current flow to acertain level Half Rectifier Operation When low AC voltage is applied to the diode (D), during the positive half cycle of the signal, the diode is forward biased and allows electric current whereas, during the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and blocks electric current or utilizes function of unidirectional. In simple words, the diode allows the positive half cycle of the input AC signal and blocks the negative half cycle.of the input AC signal as shown in Fig.1.2 The positive half cycle. of the input AC signal or AC voltage applied to the diode is analogous to the forward DC voltage applied to the P-N junction diode similarly the negative half cycle of the input AC signal applied to the diode is analogous to the reverse. DC voltage applied to the P-N junction. We know thata diode allows electric current when it is forward-biased and blocks electric current when it is reverse-biased. Similarly, in.an AC circuit, the diode allows electric current during thé positive half cycle (forward-biased) and blocks electric curtent during the negative half cycle (reverse-biased). The positive half-wave rectifier does not completely block the negative half-cycle. It allows a small portion of negative half cycles or a small negative current. This current is produced by the minority carriers in the diode. (Pisa) AC mas oP ia m Primary Wa Secondary, vp PC On AAG aha, 1 vi Fig. 1.2: Circuit diagram of positive half wave rectifier. Quanta Publisher Experiment #1: Half Wave Rectifier The construction and workin half-wave rectifier are al positive half-wave rectifi change here is the direction o' AC voltage is applied, th transformer reduces t! voltage. This low voltage diode. Unlike the positive half-wave the-negative half-wave rectifier allows current during the negative half cycl input AC signal and blocks e during the positive half cycle of the as shown in Fig.1.3 During the negativ cycle, the diode is forward biased and during the positive half cycle, the diode is r biased, so the negative half wave rectifier allo electric current only during the negative h cycle. Thus, the negative half-wave r allows negative half cycles and blocks po half cycles. The negative half-wave rect does not completely block the positive half- cycle. It allows a small portign of positive half cycles ora small positive current. <— Fig. 1.3: Circuit diagram of negative half wave rectifier. OAC cet ama (ory eo os Afilter converts the pulsating direct current into pure direct current. In half-wave rectifiers, 2 capacitor or inductor is used as a filter to convert the pulsating DC to pure DC. The Output: voltage produced by a half-wave rectifier is not constant; it varies with respect to time. In practical applications, a constant pc supply voltage is needed. In order to produce @ constant DC voltage: we need to suppress the fipples of a DC voltage. This can be achieved Py Using either a capacitor filter or an inductor filter at the output side. In Fig.1.4 we Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeor filter, The capacitor » using the capacitor r “raced 7 the output side smoothens the Pisating DC t The output is ripple dis of practical use for Jementation. oe bee Rectifier The direct current (DC) produced by a half-wave rectifier is not a pure DC but a pulsating DC. In the output pulsating DC signal, we find ripples. These ripples in the output, DC signal can be reduced by using filters such as capacitors and inductors. To measure how many ripples are there in the output DC signal we use a factor known as the ripple factor. This ripple is implemented. The ripple factor is denoted by y. The ripple factor tells us the number of ripples present in.the output DC signal. A large ripple factor indicates a high pulsating DC signal while 2 low ripple factor indicates a low pulsating DC signal. Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the ripple voltage to the DC voltage (basic inition) Ripple factor = ratio of ripple e/ratio of the DC voltage (same as-above th equality) The ripple factor should be kept minimum for a good rectifier to give qualified ut. The ripple factor is given as: nally, y= 1.21 T he unwanted ripple present in the output along the OC voltage is 1.21% of the DC magnitude The DCis givenby: 1,=1, Quanta Publ ectifier Experiment #1; Half Way ‘Output DE Voltage (VDC) The output DC voltage (VDC) is the voltage apr at the load resistor (R,). This voltage is obtained by multiplying the output direct current with the load resistance. It can be mathematically written as: Vins Soa Re The output DC voltage is given by: i In PITTS der eke) Peak inverse voltage is the maximum reverse bias voltage up to which a diode can withstand If the applied voltage is greater than the peak inverse voltage, the diode will be destroyed Rectifier Efficiency Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power. The rectifier efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%. PCr te OAL of Load Current Ins The root mean square (RMS) value of load currentin a half-wave rectifier is: Tags hfe. The form factor is defined as the ratio of the RMS value to the DC value. Itcan be mathematically written as: FF = RMS value / DC value The form factor of a half-wave rectifiers: FF = 157 OB PANE ACE = We use very few components to construct the half-wave rectifier, So, the costis very low. + Easy to construct. BUDE Oy Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier + Power loss. + Pulsating direct current + Produces low output voltage. 3 Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment a ete i shen Pe Mahe 1000 resistance in 7 = shown in rt Je 1N4007 and breadboard as xa con on th c ries connection on the 40076. 2 Eiko] Sen elow and identify points A, B, and C Voce a Oren | eatist ae oF Fig. 1.5: Cirewit diagram of half wave rectifier. 12V transformer and connect the one terminal Results and Calculations Serahe transformer at point A and the other terminal a ation of ripple factor with of the transformer at point C (gr stance with Mx xed C=100uF = ' AT rourid), “Connect the positive probe of the oscilloscope at point B and the negative probe of the oscilloscope at point C (ground). Py MMfnrord the value of V, for 1000 resistance, similarly, tecond the value of V, fr resistance range: 10002-1000 {Q in regular intervals of 1000, . Oi ave terminal of the capacitor of 100KF 4 pit B and te negative termi be caactor 1B.D= 1000, 1 S.D=100 ‘Ou paren 18.00.05, 1 S.D=0.005 Too 200 300 400 500 a0 700 a0 700 100 Resistance(a) Fig. 1.6: Decrease in ripple factor with resistance 2 Fix C-100,F sed record the vali of Vn for Half Wave Rectifier R=100Q-1000Q by varying resistance in regulaor Graph between Ripple and Time steps of 1000, e.g, 1009, 2000, 3002......10000. For C=100nF, R=1000 — 10000 ‘The calculations of ripple factor are summarized in Table 1. andthe decrease in ripple factor by increasing resistance is shown graphically in Fig.1.6. and Fig.1.7 shows variation in ripple by increasing value of R in RC filter ia a ao Sage for Sep of pF, 10x, 200, 300. 1000, Tete titles ileee ee by increasing ” eres eee by increasing Ticccealt dtppee of all ee winnie aie Quanta Publisher 7 ee 7 nalog Flectronies ‘Scanned with CamScannerExperiment #1: Half Waye Rectifier Table 1.2: Variation of ripple factor with varying capacitor. co | YY) Vew(V) | Val¥)= V,- Ving/2 VintV)= Vin V3 | 1*VadVu | 700 15.464 12.190 | 9.3690 3.57478, V0.38155 200 | 15.464 8.110 | 11.409 2.37830 | 0.20846 300 15.464 | 6.230 12.349 1.82698 0.14795 400 15.464 5.120 | 12.904 1.50147 0.1'636 500 15.464 4.312 13.308 1.26452 0.09502 600 15.464 | 3.790 13.569 | 1.11144 | 0.08191 800 15.464 | 3.120 13.904 | 0.91496 0.06581 900 15.464 2.528 14.200 | 0.74135 0.05221 | 14,302 | 0.0476 1000 64 | 2.324 Half Wave Rectifier Graph between Ripple and Time For R=1000, C=100uF - 1000pF Halt Wave Rectifier aph Between Ripple Factor and Resistance For R=10002, C= 100F- 1000." ‘On axis, 1B.D= 100:F, 1 S.D=10:F oe ‘On y-axis, 1B:D=0.05, | S.D=0.005 3 i 2 ; & alee gs ia LE eal 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 9001000 Time(s) Capacitor(:#) Fig. 1.8: Variation in ripple by increasing Fig. 1.9: Decrease in ripple factor with capacitor. value of capacitor in RC filter. a Voce Qu [> Why half-wave rectifiers are generally not used in DC power supply? 40s ‘The type of supply available from a half-wave rectifier is not satisfactory for general power supply. That is why it is generally not used in DC power supply. Moreover, it ts also not practical, [® What is meant by filter? ‘ #0 A filter is a device that converts the pulsating output of the rectifier into a steady DC level [> What is the difference b/w AC and DC supply, and what are the advantages of each? 4 AC supply is a sinusoidal function of time, but DC supply is constant every time, DC can be storable but not AC, and AC can transfer for a long distance but not DC, These all are basic differences. Define ripple as referred to in a reetifier circuit. ae: The AC component contained in the pulsating output of a rectifier is known as a ripple. [> What is rectifier, filter, and regulators? 41 Rectifier converts AC to pulsating DC Filter coverts the pulsating DC to fluctuating DC Regulator converts fluctuating DC to exact DC Quanta Publisher 5 ‘Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScannee“A Ee Design and Study of Full Wave using Diodes, Alsg Oia the fect oie Element on the DC Output and Ripple Factor Bete * Digital Multimeter * Resistors: 1000, 2000, 3009, 4002, 5000, 6009, 7000, 8009, 9000, 10000 * Breadboard , Diode 1N4007 x 4 ly classified into three types: half-wave rectifier, center tapped full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier. All these three rectifiers have a common aim that is to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Not all these three rectifiers efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into direct current (0), only the center tapped full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into direct Current (DC). In half wave rectifier, only 1 half cycle is allowed and the remaining half cycle is blocked. As a result, nearly half of the applied powers wasted in half wave rectifier In addition to this, the cutput current or voltage produced by half wave rectifier is not a pure DC but a pulsating OC which is not much useful: The useful es smooth DC that is obtained by filter, Pe Sait aiiinny A bridge rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier which Uses four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert the Siternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). ROC cre The construction diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown in the below Fig.2.1, The bridge rectifier is Cie * Oscilloscope * Capacitors: 10OuF, 200uF, 300UF, 400UF; Sooye 600uF, 700yF, 800UF, 900LF, 1000yF © Connecting Wires made up of four diodes namely D,, D., D, D, and load resistor R. The four diodes are connected in a closed loop (Bridge) configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AQ) into direct current (DC). The construction Giagram of a bridge rectifier js shown in Fig.2.1 The bridge rectifier is made up of four diodes namely D,, D,, D;, D,.and load resistor R The four diodes are connected in a closed loop (Bridge) configuration to efficiently convert the alternating Current (AC) into direct current (DC). The main advantage of this bridge circuit configuration is that we do not require an expensive Center tapped transformer, thereby teducing its cost and size, The input AC signal applied across two terminals A and B and the Output DC signal is obtained across the load fesistor R, which is Connected between the terminals Cand D. The four diodes D,, D,, D, 0. sie attanged in series with only two diodes ellowing electric current during each half ce For example, diodes D, and D, are considered as Sne pair which allows electric current during the positive half ‘cle Whereas diodes D, and D. are Considered ‘as another Pair which allows electric current during the Negative half cycle of the input ac Si9nail. Thisis shown in Fig.2.1 Analog ‘Scanned with CamScanneeWorking of Bridge Rectifier When input AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, during the positive half cycle diodes D, and D, are forward biased and allows electric current while the diodes D, and D, are reverse biased and blocks electric current. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle diodes D, and D, are forward biased and allow electric current while diodes D, and D, are reverse biased and. blocks: electric current. During the positive half cycle, the terminal becomes positive while the terminal B becomes negative. This causes the diodes D, and D, forward biased and at the same time, it causes the diodes D, and D, reverse biased. The current flow direction during the positive half cycle is i 2.{ue. A to D to Cto B). This is explained and shown in figure, itis very easy to Uunderstondts ery cleat iri Experiment #2: Full Wave Rectifier During the negative half cycle, the terminal B becomes positive while the terminal A becomes negative. This causes the diodes D2 and D4 forward biased and at the same time, it causes the diodes D1 and D3 reverse biased. The current flow direction during negative half cycle is shown in the Fig.2.3(ie. B to D to C to A). From Fig.2.2.and Fig.2.3. we can observe that the direction of current flow across load resistor Ris same during the positive half cycle and negative half cycle. Therefore, the polarity of the output DC signal is same for both positive and negative half cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the direction of diodes is,reversed then we geta complete negative DC voltage. Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. It can also be understood in the way that for one half cycle, one sided two parallel diodes work and for the other half cycle , the other side parallel diode work, the parallel cycles are “associated with the half cycle means which half cycle of input supply is to face the diodes. The input and output waveforms of bridge rectifier are shown in Fig.2.4. ‘Scanned with CamScanneror03 VN NY YN YN 02, D4 Voltage Xk ‘age t Fig. 2.4; Input and output waveforms of bridge rectifier. OT eROn nt ehconticas ‘The maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is called peak inverse voltage PIV. The PIV for a bridge rectifier is given by PIV =V,,. The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by using a factor known as ripple factor. The output DC signal with very fewer ripples is considered as the smooth DC signal while the output DC signal with high ripples is considered as the high pulsating DC signal. The ripple factor for a brid ye rectifier is given by: The rectifier efficiency determines how eficiently the rectifier converts alternating cureat oo) into direc surent (DC) High rectifier efficiency indicates a mos reliable rectifier while the low. recfierefiiency indicates e poor rectifier Rectifier efficiency is defined as DC output powerto the AC inp ‘the ratio of the ut power, HP NET RN Bt CE aT ta Experiment #2: Full Wave Rectifier PUTTER een a e rectifier the DC output Avanos Crdge rectifiers smoother thon the half wave rectifier. In other words, the bridge rectifier has fewer ripples as compared tothe half wave rectifier. fier fier efficiency of the bridge rectifier is enh ‘as compared to the halfwave rectifier Pee aoe rectifier only one half cycle of the ae anal is allowed and the remaining half cycle of the input AC signal is blocked. As @ result, nearly half of the applied input power is wasted, However, in the bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. So the output DC power is almost equal to the input AC power. OPM OR UM UCR sutli(g Panes me net sei Very Complex In a half wave rectifier, only a single diode is used whereas in a center tapped full wave Fectifier two diodes are used. But in the bridge Fectifie, we use four diodes for the circuit ‘Operation. So the bridge rectifier circuit looks more complex than the half wave rectifier More Power Loss as Compared to Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier In electronic circuits, the more diodes we use the More voltage drop will occur. The power loss in bridge rectifiers almost equal to the center tapped fullwave rectifier: However, in a bridge rectifier the voltage drop is slightly high as compared to the Center tapped full wave rectifier This is due to two aictiona diodes (total four diodes), 2 center tapped full wave rectifier, only one diode SGuring each half cycle, So the voltage Grouit is 0.7 volts. But in the bridge RENEE HICh are connected in seis ‘uring each half cycle. Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment #2: Full Wave Rectifier So the voltage drop occurs due to two diodes Considering, T; which is equal to 1.4 volts (0.7 + 0.7 = 1.4 volts), ra However, the power loss due to this voltage m-T-4 dropis very small. I ore oiicog The shunt capacitor filters comprise of capacitor along with the load resistor. In this picture the éepacitor is connected in parallel with respect to the output of rectifier circuit and also in parallel with the load resistor During conduction, the capacitor starts charging and stores energy in the form of the electrostatic field, 4 ° aap am see Fig. 2.5: Variation in ripples with RC filter in bridge rectifier. If the value of capacitance of the capacitor is high, then it will offer very low impedance to AC and extremely high impedance to DC. Thus, the AC ripples in the DC output voltage gets bypassed through parallel capacitor circuit, and DC voltage is obtained across the load resistor. ETT Ce BD Lue td Let V, be the ripple component of voltage, and Vic's the DC value of voltage and voltage Von] « YaeV. ox Let the charging duration be T, and discharging duration be T,, then total charge lost during non-conduction or discharge will be given as:. Qacsuge = 1uT, The value of charge Q = CV, |n steady state:’ Quem = Qs CV, = 17> V,= IT; C ——$ $$ pie 2Sipa les The ripple factor in case will be, Ka 1, =, Cf Pi filter consists of a shunt capacitor at the input side, and it is followed by an L section filter. The output from the rectifier is directly given across capacitor. The pulsating DC output voltage is filtered first by the capacitor connected at the input side and then. by choke coil and then by another shunt capacitor. The construction arrangement of all the components resembles the shape of Greek letter Pi (m1). Thus itis called Pi filter. Besides, the capacitor is present at the input side. Thus, itis also called capacitor input filter. ificance of Capacitor Input PC ee CC oro The ultimate aim of a Hlter is to achieve ripple free DC voltage. The filters we have discussed in our previous articles are also efficient in removing AC ripples from the output voltage of rectifier, but Pi filter is more efficient in removing ripples as it consists of one more capacitor at the input side. Fig, 2.6: Arrangement of components in Pi filter. ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment #2: Full Wave p max. Tos DCEO NTIS Ce obi a Voaas “F tage of capacitor filter is given by ? Sea) az cea x 2nfC, x 2afl, 1 peel VER 2nfy C,C,L Ze sin 20t ———> @) tor filter use know that say sin 2ot= 1 ‘ac component or 2nd term in Eq. (3) show AC Copmpnent which ee Where R, is forward resistance of diode, R, is Vins 50, mee coil of transformer resistance, Russe is resistan ee soacnipbay sep h now nee 4nfX. Put value of C, in Eq, (4) How to read V, and V,, bd ors ae chia eS Vomit = Fe Gag ¥ MK Vays = V2 |e Xy output ripple voltage = input ripple vollage x —~2— AeVotoos The maximum amplitude So, Kat, ly side of y-axis from x-axls * a x “ © as V, value and sum of +V, 8" known Vt XX 5 ; Ee te ee ond = V2 1,.X, —— XatX ee two types of filters with br Suppose X,>>X. and I,, = lt (2) Pi Filter ¥, “ms her Quanta Pul Scanned with CamScannerPeak 1 Variation of ripple Experiment #2; Full Wave Rectifier tor with varying nee, keeping C=100uF fixed, + Arrange the bridge rectifier circuit on breadboard [RG] VWI] V.W)]V.0)- Ve Valve VAN] sing diode 1N400 [00 [tae 13010 towne | auras | x woo | tae ews Sonam | ee i]s case | avons Riniant = aso | Sane | : = aaa | Soin | seo | suc | Garces | a —0.29700__| 9.0210, | Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Graph Between Ripple and Tine For C=t00qF, Ret000- 10000 aE ‘80 Mae be 00 —— oa oO + Connect R= 1000 in a parallel fashion with points re er een oy € and D. Also Connect the oscilloscope probe Cc arecrey uath positive terminal at point C and the oscilloscope (acter eee een eae! ZC a probe negative terminal at point D. Weiter TOnancZE OC om sNow record V, values from the oscilloscope for wv Mv Sse R=100Q. Similarly, record value of V, for : ae Re100Q = 10000 by varrying resistant in regular SUVA = steps of 1000. Now attach a capacitor parallel to R Onelancope * Fix C=100KF and record the value of Va. tot R=100Q-10002 by varying resistance in regulaor steps of 1002, e.g, 1000, 2009, 3002......10002, ‘The calculations of ripple factor are summarized in Table 2.1 and the decrease in ripple factor by increasing resistance is shown graphically in Fig 2.9. Fig 2.8 shows variation in ripple by increasing value of Rin RC filter. ia . * Fix R=100Q and record the value of Vi. for C=100pF-1000KF by varying capacitor in regulator steps of L00KF, €.g, 100, 2001F, 300KF......1000RF. The calculations of ripple factor ate summarized in 000 0.03 0.06 009 0.12 O18 0.18 0 Time(s) Fig, 2.8: Variation in ripple by changing Value of R in RC Filter, 100 200 $00 400 Sou 6H 700 NOW 900 L000 Resistance) Table 2.2 and the decrease in ripple fuctor by increasing Fig. 2.9: Decrease in ripple factor by increasing capacitor is shown graphically in Fig 2.11, Fig 2.10 shows, resistance value. ‘atiation in ripple by inereasing value of Cin RC filter," Tuble 2.2 Variation of ripple factor with varying capacitor, ‘The circuit diagram of full wave bridge rectifier is shown keeping R=1000 fixed. CO[VIWIVRO0]V.O)= Vi Va|V,nvy- Vga VN] 100 | 14.67 | 6734 11,3030 ase | oars | we}ao| ar] use | tame | ane | 300 | 14.67 | 3201 13.0695, o92si4 eorors | | 400 | 867 | 2076 | aaamz0 aceon | cos so] sser| 206 | 36820 essa | como eo} ae | 26 | sx.am0 ase | oaxes0 700 nines user | oowrs 00 nns ewan | core Fig. 2.7; Full wave bridge rectifier circuit 0 sane eauen | omrao diagram with RC filter 1000 14.595 029740 Publisher 1 ‘Analog Electronies ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment #2: Fun Wave Recti, tifer Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Graph Between Ripple and Time For R=1000, C=100pF- 1000 pF or (anna acd ——— c (ee Sere eee a | a ore ‘i BO sete sarees oe cone 4. Connect the one terminal of L=2.2mH to posi Nea eee ae ae terminal of C;=680uF and other terminal of shows ne oa be connected with positive terminal of C.=639,¢ Pn and the negative terminal of Cz should be groundeg a So the inductor is sandwitched between positive 2 terminals of two capacitors. > = | 000 083 06 009 012 O15 018 O21 024 “Time (3) Fig. 2.0: Variation in ripple by changing 5. Connect one terminal of D~ 100uh, 1 S.D-t0nF 0022 to positive terminal i cra nese of G aind other terminal of R should be grounded. Keep 2 con varying R in the steps of 10022 for R=1000-10000 z and record V,,, for each resistance value E e 29° ;oa 200 300 409 500 60 7o0 800 9001000 ‘Capacitor(a) E Fig. 211: Decrease in ripple factor by increasing A ‘capacitor vale. EET EEE os z i The calculations of ripple factor are summarized in Table 2.3. Fig 2.13 shows variation in ripple by increasing valu, of Rin Pi filter COTM MEMO aM co Carey cd . E zu [rain A ¥ 220vr00 a ta |e ae UE cane T sour 000 : A Q “itgwae irri Ras iar ne 2 Results and Discussions 2. Take a 12V Transformer and connect one out- Ut wire at point A and the other output wise at ee 2 sy pee ' fm) anf)’ C,C.LR : Yon hy = 28 Vp, (R, +R, +R, — 0) 8 Y=Veo/Vs-———>.3) Use f= 100Hz (as output frequency of bridge rectifiers 1008? | R/31,50 (this is caluclated with the help of DMM) ad ee a x 3 2.2h 10’ = 1.382 3. Connéct the positive terminal of the C,-680nF eres ae Bee ae chet of inaoor) _ *t point C, and negative terminal of C, should be’ The ealeulations done in Table 2 3 are performed sin * grounded, the formulas shown by eq(1), eq(2), & eq Quanta Publisher 42 Analog ronics Qi ‘Scanned with CamScannerExperiment #2: Full Wave Rectifier fable 23: Variation of ripple factor with v oping (C;-680uF, C;-680pF, L- ro - soon| Ripple 4000 010 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 Time(s) Fig. 213: Variation in ripple by changing value i a of Rin Pi filter. (> Define line regulation and load regulation? CoE ‘os Line regulation= Change in output voltage/ Change in input voltage No load voltage- full load voltage/ No load voltage [® In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel but not in series, why? 4s Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal. In rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage: If capacitance value increases its capacity also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier. [®] What is a low-pass filter? aes A filter that provides a constant output from DC up to a cutoff frequency f, and then pas: no signal above that frequency is called a low-pass filter. What is a high-pass filter? #es A filter that provides or passes signals above a cutoff frequency f, is called a high-pass filter. Ithas a zero gain starting from zero to a frequency f, and above this frequency the gain is constant, © Why r-filters are not suitable for varying loads? 4s Voltage regulation in case of x-filters is very poor and therefore, r-filters are not suitable for it necessary to include voltage stabilizer in a power supply? 4s ‘The magnitude of output de voltage may vary with the variation of either the input ac voltage or the magnitude of load current. So at the output of a rectifier-filter combination a voltaye stabilizer is required, &> Explain the importance of ripple and regulation in the case of a rectifier. “ss Ripple factor gives the idea about fluctuations in signal, if tis less means ripples are less for _ DC ripple factor is zero. Regulation gives idea about the variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC load current. % regulation = (Vxt-VeL)/Vet X 100% [ideal power supply its 0]. © Explain why only the inductor or the capacitor alone is not used as filters to a FWR circuit? “In inductor filter ripple factor is inversely proportional to load; in capacitor filter ripple factor is proportional to load, so in LC filter ripple factor will be independent of toad, © What are the different filters used in AC to DC converters? Which is best and why? ‘» L.C,LC (L-section), n-section, RC filters. Best one is L-section because ripple factor is independent of load. This is used for the practical purposes in all cases to each extent. © Why capacitor input filter is preferred to choke input filter? “* In capacitor input filter, the DC output is much larger and ripples are less in comparison to those in choke input filter. So, capacitor input filter is preferred to choke input filter. Quanta Publisher 43 ey ‘Scanned with CamScannee\ ul Design and Study of the Clipping Circuits BV eet) * Audio Generator * Digital Multimeter, Resistance 1kQ. * 9V DC Battery * Diode 1N4007. Electronic devices are very Sensitive to voltage. If a large amplitude voltage is applied, it may permanently destroy the device. So, it is essential to protect the electronics devices. The protection of the electronic devices can be achieved by using the clipper circuits. clipper is a device that removes either the positive half (top half) or negative half (bottom half), or both positive and negative halves of the input AC signal. in other words, a clipper is a device that limits the positive amplitude or negative amplitude or both positive and negative amplitudes of the input AC signal, In some cases, a clipper removes a small portion of the positive half cycle or negative half cycle or both positive and negative half cycles. in the below circuit diagram, the positive haif cycles are removed by using the series positive clipper. alee Cee Quanta Publisher 14 © Oscilloscope Breadboard © Connecting Wires The clipper circuits, are generally categorized three types: series clippers, shunt clippers and dus (combination) clippers. In series clippers, the ode is connected in series with the output load resistance In shunt clippers, the diode is connected in parale| with the output load resistance. The series clippers are again classified into four types: series postive Glipper, series positive clipper with bias, seres negative clipper and series negative clipper with bas The shunt (parallel) clippers are again classified ino four types: shunt positive clipper, shunt posive clipper with bias, shunt negative clipper, and shurt negative clipper with bias. Various Types of Clipper Circuits Series positive clipper Series positive clipper with positive bias Series positive clipper with negative bias Series negative clipper Series negative clipper with positive bias Series negative clipper with negative bias Ry ho yas *Connect p-side of diode 1N4007 to one term Of resistance 1k in a series on breadbo#!? * shown in figure, nal emi “Analog Electro" ‘Scanned with CamScanneeator by connecting enerator at n-side ninal of audio generator at of TKO resistance. Connect oscilloscope lead at p-side of diode and negative probe of 3 with negative terminal of audio generator. input IS of series positive clipper are audio cillose = 5 Jou 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15' 020 0.25 0.30 ‘Time (s) Fig. 3.1: Input and output waveforms of series. positive clipper. See aa it *Connect p-side of diode 1N4007 to one terminal of resistance 1kQ in a series on breadboard. Apply 10V, from the audio generator by connecting the positive terminal of the audio generator at n-side of diode and Negative terminal of audio generator should be connected to ground. Now introduce positive terminal of 9V battery at other side terminal of 1k0 resistance and negative terminal of battery should be grounded. Connect oscilloscope Positive lead at p-side of diode and negative probe of oscilloscope and audio generator Should be grounded. Input and autput waveforms of sores positive clipper with positive bias are shown in Fig. Experiment #3; Clipping Circuits a Pose rit TANNA ANIA vv oadal VVVVVVVY ITN 0.00005 0.10 0.15 0.20. Time(s) Voltage(V) 025 0.0 Fig. 3.2: Input and output waveforms of series positive clipper with positive bias. ies Pi aT Seah Connect p-side of diode 1N4007 to one terminal of resistance 1kQ in a series on breadboard. Apply 10V, ‘from the audi generator by connecting the positive terminal of the audio generator at n-side of diode and negative terminal of audio generator should be connected to ground. Now introduce negative terminal of 9V battery at other side terminal of 1kO resistance and positive terminal of battery should be grounded. Connect oscilloscope positive lead at p-side of diode and negative probe of oscilloscope and audio generator should be grounded. input and output waveforms of series positive clipper with negative bias are shown Fig. 33, Quanta Publisher Electronics ‘Anal ‘Scanned with CamScanneeNANA Mi | | \ 00 00S O40 O15 0.20 0.25 030 Time(s) Fig. 23: Input and output waveforms of series positive clipper with negative \\ | | + Connect _n-side of diode 1N4007 to one terminal of resistance 1kQ in a series on breadboard as shown in figure connection. Apply 10V, from the audio generator by ‘connecting the positive terminal of the audio generator at p-side of diode and negative ferminal of audio generator at other terminal of 40 resistance, Connect oscilloscope positive lead at n-side of diode and negative probe of ‘oscilloscope with negative terminal of audio generator. Input and output waveforms of series negative clipper are shown in Fig. 34. Fig. 3.4: Input and output wavetorms negaive cipperceeutt ect n-side of diode 1N4007 to one termina Stresistance ‘TkQina series on breadboard. Apply TOV, from the audio generator by connecting the Ov tre terminal of the audio generator at Psde Pf diode and negative terminal of audio ‘Ge should be connected to ground. Now introduce positive terminal of 9V battery at other side terminal of 1k resistance ‘and negative terminal of battery should be grounded. Connect ‘tive lead at n-side of diode and negative ‘of oscilloscope and audio generator Plpould be grounded Input and outst geveforms of series negative clipper ‘with positive bias are shown in Fig. 32 -Voltage(V) 0.00 0.05. 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.0 Time(s) Fig. 3.5: Input and output waveforms of series * Connect n-side of diode 1N4007 to 0” terminal of resistance 1k in a series °° breadboard. Apply 10V, from the audio gene’ by connecting the positive terminal of the av? Generator at p-side of diode and neget'® terminal of audio generator should be connect®™ to ground. Now introduce negative terminal of ema terminal of 1k resistance ‘Analog Electronic ‘Scanned with CamScanneettery should be .grounded. ve lead at n-side of diode joscope and audio generator ut and ou! waveforms regative bias are shown in Fig. 36. Peete OCLs) Tapat| voltage(V) Oupat 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 020 025 030 Time(s) . 3.6: Input and output waveforms of series negative clipper with negative bias. ED What are applications of clipper circuits? 4s Clippers canbe used in applications, such as: 1) They are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing signals from the composite picture signals (It is the major application of clipper circuits to separate signals accordingly). 2) The excessive noise spikes above a certain level can be limited or clipped in FM transmitters by using series clippers. (Same can be done in AM transmitters but with shunt clippers 3) For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing waveform, clippers ar€ used aR 17 ircuits Experiment #3: Clipping [® Why output of clipper circuits is taken in D.C mode? As well as being used as rectifiers, diodes can also be used to clip the top, or bottom, or both of a waveform at a particular DC level and pass it to the output without distortion. In or examples above we have assumed that the waveform is sinusoidal but in theory any shaped input waveform can be used. Ans [> What is other name*for clipper circuits? ‘ant The diode clipper, also known as a diode limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both lalves together. [AD What is basic difference between the clipper and clamper working operation? The significant difference between clipper (wave shaping) as well as clamper (wave shifting) is that clipper is a restricting circuit which limits the outcome yoltage while clamper is a circuit which shifts the DC degree of result voltage. While clamper is used when we require multiples of the input voltage at the result terminal, but for clippers dividing is obtained. Ans [How clippers are used in sepsrating picture in television and reduce the noise? 4os There are numerous applications for diode clippers. They find wide application in television receiver for separating synchronizing signals from composite picture signals and also in television transmitters at the time of processing the picture signals, They, are also employed for different wave generation such as trapezoidal, square or rectangular waves. 2D What is difference between the slicing and clipping of voltage waveform? Clipping means cutting and removing @ part. Clipping circuits, also called voltage or current limiters, amplitude selectors or slicers are used to select for transmission that part of an waveform which lies above or below a particular reference level. Clamping means to fix DC level to some constant reference level. It is used accordingly of requirement needed. ‘Analog, Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment #4: Clamping Circuits Design and Study of the Clamping Cricuits * Audio Generator © Digital Multimeter, Resistance 1k * 9V DC Battery * Diode 1N4007 Aclamperis an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of.a signal to the desired level without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit moves the whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the signal at the desired level. The DC component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input signal. A clamper circuit adds the positive DC component to the input signal to push it to the positive side. Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative DC component to the inputsignal to push itto the negative side. The action of clamper is shown in Fig 4.1. est caer Fig. 4.1 Positive clamper circuit. If the circuit pushes the signal upwards then the circuit is said to be a positive clamper as shown in Fig 4.1. * Oscilloscope © Breadboard * Connecting Wires 100nF © Capacitor Tegaive camper Fig. 4.2 Negative clamper circuit. On the other hand, if the circuit pushes the signal downwards then the circuit is said to be a negative clamper. When the signal is pushed downward, the positive peak of the signal meets the zero level. The construction of the clamper circuit is almost similar to the clipper circuit. The only difference is the clamper circuit contains an extra element ‘called capacitor. A capacitor is used to provide a DG offset (DC level) from the stored charge. A typical clamper is made up of a capacitor, diode, and resistor. Some clampers contain an extra element called DC battery. The resistors and Capacitors are used in the clamper circuit to ‘maintain an altered DC level at the clamper output. The clamper is also referred to as a DC festorer, clamped capacitors, or AC signal level shifter. This is further explained by all types. one tir) i Positive clam) ‘When the signal is pushed upwards, the nogative peak Negative clanspers of the signal meets the zero level. _ Biased clampers (Quanta Publisher 18 ‘Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneeExperiment #4: Clamping Circuits = — Positive Clamper 2 20 juency SOHz from the audio generator * the positive terminal of the audio generator % 10 withthe postive terminal of C=100u, connectthenegaice 0 erminal of the C with the n-sde of the diode, the Pike 40 grounded. Connect the one teminal > Je ide of the diode and the other be grounded. Connect the positive -30 oscilloscope to n-side of the diode bnd the $8 ‘oscilloscope and audio generator “s ded. Input and output waveforms “S are shown in Fig. 4.3. 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 025 030 035 Time(s) Fig 4.4: Input and output waveforms of positive clamper with positive bi See sApply 10V, and frequency SOHz from the audio generator by’ connecting the positive terminal of the audio generator with-the positive terminal of C= and connect the negative terminal of the C with the n. of the diode. Connect the p-side of the diode to negative terminal of the bat F ide the tery and the positive terminal other terminal of R should be grounded. Connect the positive probe of the oscilloscope to n-side of the diode and the negative probe of the ‘scilloscope and audio generator should be grounded. Input, and output waveforms of positive clamper with negative bias are shown in Fig. 4.5, sAspby 10V, snd frequency SOHz from the audio generator by connecting the positive lead of the audio generator with the ‘eeminal of C=100uF, connect the negative terminal ‘sith the m-side of the diode. Connect the p-side of the ‘Se positive torminal of the battery and the negative je bancry should be grounded. Connect the one Rr i tH i Ei li i F aa RR 0.00 0.08 0.10 0.45 0.20 0.35 0.30 Time(s) Fig 4.5: Input and output waveforms of positive clamper with negative bias. *Apply IOV, and frequency SOHz from the audio generator by connecting the positive lead ofthe audio generator with 19 Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneere Experiment #4 Clamping Gy. the positive terminal of C=100uF, connect the net terminal ofthe C with the pide of the diode, the nde of the iode should be grounded. Connect the one terminal of R=UKQ ‘ith the sie ofthe doe and the cle em of K should bbe grounded. Connect the postive probe of the oscil ‘the pside of the diode andthe negative probe ofthe osilloscope and audio generator should be grounded. Input ‘and output waveforms of negative clamper are shown in Fig. 44 1.00 0:05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 3 Time(s) waveforms of P47; bneut end Pe eae fad cr generator : it generator with the positive terminal of C=100uF, x: connect the negative terminal of the C with the pte ~ of the diode. Connect the n-side of the diode to i negative terminal of the battery and the posiie terminal of the batiery should be grounded. Conse: the one terminal of R=IkQ with the p-side of t » diode and the other terminal of R should be grounds Connect the positive probe of the oscilloscope to - prside of the diode and the negative probe of te oscilloscope and audio generator should be grounési Input and output waveforms of negative clamper wis negative bias are shown in Fig. 4.8 Tone ‘Scanned with CamScannerExperiment #4: Clamping Circuits tion and narrate how is it different from the clipper circuit. aes Aclamper is an electronic circuit that fixes cither the positive or the negative peak excursions of a signal to a defined value by shifting its DC value. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excurs on of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place peaks at the reference level. (® What are other name of clamper circuits? aes This circuit quickly adds or subtracts a DC element to the input AC signal. Other than the name clamping circuit, baseline stabi (> Why capacito 4s From the basi zer or DC reinserted, or Level all are the other names used in clamper circuits? es of the capacitor, we know C charges and hold it until the discharge path is found. In the clamping circuit, we just charge C positive or negative depending on the direction of the diode used. This diode blocks the discharging path for C in the next half cycle. So, when we apply AC to the clamping circuit, during the first half cycle C charges/discharges (if K point of the diode pointed towards C it is charging during the i positive half cycle otherwise discharging) and again for the next circle this positive or j negative voltage gets added and waveform gets clamped. _ 2 Why capacitor is not completely discharged in clamper circuits? i 4s The operation of a clamper is based on the principle that the charging time of a capacitor is very small as compared to its discharging time. This is the reason why a capacitor never discharges completely. The 1 of th> RC circuit is chosen in such as way that 1>>T/2,so that . the capacitor can never discharge completely. That is the reason why the capacitor is not completely discharged. > What is the steady and transient state in a circuit? 4s In electronic circuits, a transient response is the response of a circuit to a change from equilibrium or a steady state. The transient response is not necessarily tied to abrupt events but to any event that affects the equilibrium of the system. enn ee Tee Amlog Elite Quanta Publisher f 21 Analog Electromes Scanned with CamScannerL Experiment #5; Transistor Common Emit, = Design and Study of Common Emitter “Cransistor * DC Power Supply 12V © Resistors: 100k, 4.7kQ, 20kQ, 1kQ * Digital Multimeter + Bread Board and Connecting Wires ‘The amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to raise the strength of a weak signal. The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is known as amplification. One important requirement during amplification is that only the magnitude of the signal should increase and there should be no change in signal shape. The transistor is used for amplification. When a transistor is used as an amplifier, the first step is to choose a proper configuration in which the device is to be used. Then the transistor is biased to get the desired Q-point. The signal is applied to the amplifier input and gain is achieved. From the voltage waveforms for the CE circuit, there is a 180° phase shift between the inputand output waveform: Wy LL Biasing Circuit: The resistances Ry Ry and Ry form the biasing and stabilization circuit. Input Capacitor, C,:An cerarmic capacitor C,is used to couple the signal to the oase of the transistor Emitter Bypass Capacitor, C,: An emitter bypass” ” capacitor, C, is used parallel with R, to provide a low reactance path to the amplified AC signal.” “Ubltage Amplifier Transistor C-1383 Capacitors: 2uF, O1pF x2 ‘Audio Generator Oscilloscope Coupling Capacitor, C,: The coupling capacitor, C; couples one stage of amplification to the next stage, if it is not used, the bias conditions of the next stage will be drastically g effect of R. Output req band voltage gain of the amplifier = 50 and required output voltage swing = 10V. Selection of Transistor: Select transistor 1383 since its minimum guaranteed §(=200) is more than the required: gain (=50) of the amplifier. DC Biasing Conditions: Ve. is taken as 20% more than required output swing. Hence =12V, I= 1mA because f is eomareed 100 at that cutcent as perdata sheet Design of R,: Vag = Tey Tj I= 1mA~0.906mA, Vax 10% } So, Vae= 1V R 7) re) Quanta Publisher Analog Electron ‘Scanned with CamScanneeDesign of Re: ce Vu Verg Vag) He = (10 5~0,7)/0.906 R= 47KQ Design of Voltage Divider R, and R.: Assume the current through R, = 201, and that through R,=79/, for a stable voltage across R, and R, independent of the variations of the base current. Vas Veet Vag b€. Voy Vyy¥ Vug = 0.7 1.0 = 1.7¥, 10-1.7) 0 Experiment #5: Transistor Common Emitter The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal frequency. It is because the reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency and hence affects the output voltage: Fig.5.2 shown general behavior of CE amplifier gain with frequency. ry) oe Frequency Fig. 5.2: General behavior of voltage gain of CE amplifier by changing frequency. 100k. 1Kie 100K: fi soa ‘Scanned with CamScanner—— kQ to the emitter Connect one terminal of Ry=1 inal of terminal of the transistor and the other termi the R, to the ground. 3-Connect a capacitor C,-24F with the positive terminal of the capacitor the to emitter terminal of the transistor and the negative terminal of the ‘capacitor to ground. 4-Connect one terminal resistor of R,=20k2to the base terminal of transistor and the other terminal of R; to ground. : Experiment #5: Trans} z i | (ee S| 2 a ela a ieee | 8-Connect one terminal of ceramic capacitor C=9 i, to collector terminal and other terminal of the cap, itor to positive probe of oscilloscope, the nega probe of oscilloscope should be connected to groung ae ana Mitte 9-Set V=50mV and f1kHz on the audio generate and record the output voltage V, and find the volts gain of CE amplifier using using A=V/V, Fi S0mV and keep on increasing frequency in the regu steps of 1kHz, record output voltage and ampli gain for each frequency value as shown in Table 5! Draw the graph between voltage gain and frequency as shown in Fig 5.4. terminal of the transistor and connect the other terminal of R, to Vex Connect one terminal of Re=4.7kM to collector of transistor and other terminal of Re 10 Voc: T-Connect one terminal of the ceramic i 0.1)F to the base terminal of the transistor and other terminal of the ceramic capacitor to positive terminal of the audio generator, the negative terminal of twudio generator should be es to ground. eee Quanta Publisher Experimental Results Ton Ce amplifier variation of voltage gun by varying frequen (kHz) V. (mV) ¥.(¥) A, =(VJ¥) T 30 zis a6 2 50 3004 os 3 50 444 88.8 - 50 5.04 100.8 s 50 5.36 107.2 6 50 5:56 m2 7 30 54 hes 8 50 588 ute 9 50 596 92 10 50 604 1208 20 50 6.04 1208 40 50 6.04 120.8 0 50 6.04 120.8 30 50 6.04 1208 100 50 604 08 140 50 604 108 180, 50 604 1208 220 30 604 1208 260 50 6.04 1208 300 50 5.99 1208 301 50 588 192 302 50 $77 1185 303 50 5.56 ug. 304 50 5.18 1176 a 5.08 1168 456 m2 307, 50 436 107.2 308 50 4.04 100.8 » 50 3.94 88.8 alo 50 3.04 60.8 alt 50 288 43.6 ‘Analog Electronics ‘Scanned with CamScanneepee D2 anit ski sie 1BD=2 asi: 1B.D-SOKEZ IS. 7 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 f(kH2) Fig. 54: Variation in voltage gun of CE by varying frequency [BD Is the BJT is a current-controlled device or yoltage-controlled device? ‘ans It is current controlled device. [2] Whaat is meant by Q- point? ee. E fae_It specifies the correct biasing at which gives required amplification, or the point of no input [> Whatis biasing and why it is needed for transistors? sm The provess of giving proper supply voltage and resistances for obtaining the desired operating point. [> What are the methods of transistor biasing, which type is best and why? Reyna bias. emitter feedback bias, collector base bias, collector-emitter feedback bias, self bias (voltage divider bias), in these all self-bias is best because it is more stable for a greater range of input signal and gives the faithful amplification over a certain range of frequency, 1 Why are silicon type transistors more often used than germanium? vam Because silicon transistor has smaller cut-off current Icpo, small variations in Icno due to. variations in temperature and high operating temperature as compared to those in the case of germanium. [ED Why CE configuration is most popular in amplifier circuits? ‘aes CE configuration is mainly used because its current, voltage, and power gains are quite high ‘and the ratio of the output impedance and input impedance are quite moderate. [> Define the beta of a transistor. . ‘am The B factor transistor is the common emitter current gain ofthat transistor and is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the base current: I=1-/, . Explain how BJT can be used as an amplifier. 4s A transistor operates as an amplifier by transfer of the current from low impedance loop to petsecesinst loop. Moreover, it has high current, voltage and power gain, as of practical Pasian ss oh. fea in a CE transistor? any transistor circuit, there is a phase shift. It takes a finite time for the controlling signal, usually on the base connection, to have an effect on the circuit and cause a change to the ‘output. The shape of the signal remains but it is shifted in time (phase). Quanta Publisher 3 ‘Scanned with CamScannee log Electronics