CHAPTER 9 Reaction Vessel Design

REACTION VESSEL

The name suggest it is a unit process, but also used to conduct mixing,
extraction, dissolution, distillation and what not!!!
This might be operated at high pressure, under vacuum or at atmospheric
condition. This is subjected to nature.
Selection of reaction vessel
Simple/Ideal Life Homogeneous Reaction, Isothermal Condition, Ideal Mixing,
Elementary reaction, No catalyst, 100% yield, highest rate of HT and MT,
Highest conversion, no cleaning requirements
Real Life Heterogeneous reaction, multiple reactions, non isothermal condition,
non ideal mixing, solid catalyst required, less conversion and yield, poor HT
and MT, Non elementary reactions, parallel and series reaction
Based on the real life situations, one has to make correct decision on selection
of right type of reaction vessel for given application.

Part I from process point of view

ƒ The chemical reactions can be carried out
1. Either in liquid phase or vapor/gas phase
2. Either in presence of solid or in absence of solid.
ƒ Some of the liquid phase reactions are oxidation, hydrogenation, alkylation,
nitration, halogenations, sulfonation, polymerization, poly condensation, etc.
ƒ Due to increased capacity of process plants, vapor phase reactions are
becoming more and more popular. These types of reactions are important
where enormous amount of energy will be evolved during the reaction. The
vapor rate and vapor velocity can be controlled and there by rate of reaction
can be controlled. Generally tubular reactors are preferred for these types
of reactions.

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ƒ In liquid phase reactions, the reactants are immediately mixed as soon as

they enter the reactor. The whole mass is in back mixed state and the
concentration is uniform through out the unit. If highly exothermic reactions
are carried out in liquid phase, it becomes difficult to maintain the reaction
temperature. In such units the reaction can be controlled by residence time
and using number of units in series. Generally CSTRs are preferred for
these types of reactions.
ƒ Thus selection of reactor depends upon the process requirements and the
process capacity.
ƒ Whenever process involves reaction, Overall rate of reaction is controlled by
either rate of mass transfer or intrinsic of kinetics (Rate of reaction).
ƒ If one of the steps is disturbed, it affects the overall process
1. Time required for reaction to complete will increase or
2. Reaction may not advance at all or
3. Reaction will not proceed to desired extent.
ƒ Along with these steps, based on the heat of reaction, heat transfer is also
equally important factor to be considered.
1. Heating Æ Endothermic Reaction
2. Cooling Æ Exothermic Reaction
Agitation
ƒ Agitators are provided in the reactors to improve the mass transfer and heat
transfer rate. Some time the arrangement of reactors are made such it will
create turbulence in the flow, they are called static mixers.
ƒ Both heat and mass transfer will be influenced by the agitation or
mixing.
ƒ An agitator, known as a stirrer, produces high velocity liquid streams,
which move through the vessel. As high velocity streams come into
contact with stagnant or slower moving liquid, momentum transfer takes
place.
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 CHAPTER 9 Reaction Vessel Design

ƒ The classification of agitator is been done based on the viscosity of the

content.
ƒ After laboratory scale study of a chemical reaction, one has to carry out the
scale up study to obtain optimum value of ratio HT area/ Unit volume of
reaction mixture.
Part II DESIGN POINT OF VIEW
ƒ Pressure vessels are used in the chemical industries for the reaction purpose
for carrying out blending, dispersion, gas absorption, dissolution, batch
distillation, etc. under the controlled condition.
ƒ The vessel may be open or closed.
ƒ If the closed vessel withstanding moderate pressure it is called as “Reaction
Kettle”, but if it is required to withstand higher pressure (>20 bar) &
temperatures it is called as “Autoclave”.
ƒ Capacities of reaction vessel are: At pilot level the size can be from 10 to
1000lit and at commercial level it could be up to 25m3, with the shell
diameter varying between 50cm and 500cm. Fermenters of capacity 100m3
are common.
ƒ They are normally vertical in installation with L/D ratio 0.5 to 1.5. CSTR
with L/D ratio of 1 are mostly preferred for better HT and MT purpose. For
Gas-liquid reactions L/D ratio of 2 or larger preferred to increase the
residence time as solubility is an issue.
ƒ Heads preferred are shallow dished head like elliptical or torispherical. If
frequent cleaning is required then flanges (mostly tongue and groove or
male and female type flange facing) are suggested. But main problem is the
leakage of the gasket sealing from flange so tongue and groove type facing is
suggested.
ƒ Conical closer with reactors are not preferred due to poor mixing
characteristics. Especially reaction involving suspended solid.

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ƒ Any type of nozzle can be used with the reaction vessel (Inlet, outlet, sight
and light glass, thermo well, hand holes, manholes).
ƒ Bracket or column supports are generally preferred for installation.
Material of Construction
ƒ Carbon steel, stainless steel and other alloy steel such as hastelloy. In special
cases non-ferrous alloying metals such as copper, nickel, aluminium, and
titanium are also used for better mechanical strength and also for good
corrosion resistance.
ƒ At moderate pressure and temperature applications glass reinforced
polyesters, glass filled furons, phenolics and polyvinyl chloride can be
layered.
ƒ Saving in cost can be achieved by Cladding of corrosion resistant material in
stainless steel, nickel, inconel, Monel metal, copper etc.
ƒ Vessel can also be lined with lead, rubber, glass and plastics to prevent
corrosion.

Part III OPERATION POINT OF VIEW

1. Batch reactors: Exclusively used for the liquid phase reactions.
Temperatures, pressures and compositions will vary with time. Dyes and
Paints, Food, Pharmaceutical etc.
2. Continuous reactors: A uniform concentration is maintained throughout the
vessel. Polymerization, hydrogenation, nitration etc.
3. Semi-batch reactors: when heat and mass transfer is important, when shifting
of equilibrium is required, when changing the selectivity is required.
Comparison of batch vs continuous reactors
It has to be deciding first whether the process is batch wise or continuous.
Technical Feasibility
Î Batch reactor is useful for small production rates and long reaction times.
The operation is flexible and reaction conditions are adjustable. If process
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plant is to produce varied chemicals, batch reactor utility is suitable. Eg.

Pharmaceuticals and other fine chemicals. Batch reactors require less
instrumentation cost.
Î The problems of batch operation are that an extensive manual operation and
continuous supervision is needed. It is difficult to maintain the same quality
in different batches.
Î Continuous reactors are useful at high production rates and high conversion
rates. Constant quality of the product can be maintained. Manual operation
and supervision cost is less due to automatic control.

Part IV Economic Viability

Î Economic viability is also an important factor in selecting batch or
continuous operation. The fixed costs which include depreciation,
maintenance, supervision etc are independent of production rates; these costs
are higher in continuous operation.
Î The variable costs involved are due to electricity, cooling water, air, fuel and
other utilities.
Î Quality control, laboratory services are proportional to production rate and
are higher for batch operation due to frequent batch change over.
Î Energy utilization is not very efficient in batch operation.
Î Raw material costs can be taken as same for both batch and continuous
operations and are proportional to production rate.
Î Total production cost is sum of all the costs mentioned above. The net profit
of the products is equal to revenue earned minus the expenses in production.
It can be taken as same for both type of operations.
Î The difference between net sales and total production costs shows the profit
or loss of the process plant. No loss, no profit indicates the break even
capacity of operation, break even point is less for batch operation as

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compared to continuous operation, which indicates the greater economic

flexibility of both operations as indicated in figure below.

Industrial Reactors
1. Kettle
2. Autoclave
3. Bubble column
4. Gas sparged Reactor
5. Fixed Bed Reactor
6. Fluidized Bed Reactor
7. Falling Film Reactor
8. Photochemical Reactor
9. Extrusion press or a screw conveyor in polymerization reactor
10.Spray column
11.Air lift reactor

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Reactor Classification based on process requirements

1. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
a. Most preferred
b. Largest volume requirement for given conversion
c. Heat transfer will be by either by jackets, coils or by external reflux
exchangers
d. Normally operates at atmospheric conditions
2. Tubular Reactor (PFR)
a. Generally for gas/vapor phase reactions
b. High pressure drop
c. Minimum volume requirement for given conversion
d. Easy temperature control
3. Column Reactor
a. Expensive than above two reactors
b. Performance cannot be predicted
4. Bubble Reactor
a. Gas-liquid reactions are carried out
b. Low agitation power
c. Poor mixing phenomena
d. Interfacial area is at the most 400m2/m3.
5. Baffled Reactor
a. Good for gas-liquid-solid operations
b. Good mixing
c. Less expensive
6. Packed Column Reactor
a. Used for liquid phase and gas phase reactions with/without solid
catalyst
b. Difficult to remove heat and control temperature due to non-
idealities
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 CHAPTER 9 Reaction Vessel Design

c. Not suited for highly exothermic reactions

d. Interfacial area can be larger than bubble contactors
7. Screw Conveyor Extruders
a. Used for reaction of highly viscous materials.
b. Production of cellulose acetate and Nylon-6
8. Electrolytic Cell
a. Production of NaOH from NaCl

Parameters to be considered for reactor design

1. operating condition
2. production rate
3. mode of operation
4. mechanism and reaction rate
5. mass transfer and heat transfer
6. mechanical agitation
7. material of construction
8. cost of reactor
All the above parameters have their own importance in designing and selecting
a reactor for the operation.

Heating or Cooling System

ƒ Chemical reactions are accomplished by the addition or removal of heat. So
the vessel must provide with the heating or cooling arrangement.
ƒ Both vapor and liquids are used as the heat transfer media. If vapor is used
then heat is transferred through the latent heat and if liquid is used then
through sensible heat. So entire surface has to be at uniform temperature.
ƒ The rate of heat transfer depends upon
9 The properties of the fluid (density, viscosity, conductivity)

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9 The heating and cooling medium (Vapor (Superheated or saturated) or

liquid (subcooled or chilled))
9 The vessel geometry (Horizontal or vertical)
9 The material of construction (Conductivity of MOC)
9 The thickness of the vessel wall
9 The degree of agitation.
Heating system
¾ Two types:
– Direct heating. (Electrical heating) lower efficiency and higher cost
ƒ Resistance Heating
ƒ Induction Heating
– Indirect heating.

Heating medium Temperature range (0C)

Saturated steam 100-180
Oil (thermic fluid) 180-300
Dowtherm E 180-260
Dowtherm A 300-400
Molten salt 400-590
Na-K alloys 590-750
Flue gases or hot air 750-1100
Electrical heating ≥ 1100

Cooling system
Always done indirectly

Cooling medium Operating T range (0C)

Brines -68 – 5
Ethanol-water solution -5 – 5
Methanol – water solution -33 - -1
Ethylene glycol -34 – 5
CaCl2 solution -20 – 0

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NaCl solution -9.4 – 5

CH3Cl -67.7 - -37.2
Trichloro ethylene -67.7 - -37.2
Trichloro fluoromethane -67.7 - -37.2
Chilled water 5 – 12
Cooling water 30 – 60
Oil -1 – 316
Air Atmospheric condition

WAYS OF PROVIDING HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA

¾ Jacket: Externally. Plain, dimpled, half coil, baffled etc.
¾ Coils: Internally. Helical coils, Hasp coil, plate baffles, and water cooled
baffles.
¾ Heat transfer coefficients can be increased by increasing the velocities of the
medium and also providing the agitation to the contents.

Choice
Æ There is no specific choice between the jacket and coil for a vessel carrying
out an exothermic or endothermic reactions, although a jacket is installed when
it is necessary to supply the heat and a coil is used when to remove the heat.
Æ Heat is supplied by condensing vapor, and for a given heat transfer area there
is a greater space for condensation in a jacket than in a coil. The greater the
space provided by jackets, the greater the ease of the drainage of the condensate.
Æ On the other hand, a cooling coil is generally more suitable than a cooling
jacket because the rate of heat transfer is greater under forced convection
conditions and greater turbulence can be achieved in a coolant liquid when it is
pumped through the a coil than when pumped through the jacket.
Æ When frequent cleaning is required then the angled baffles are more suitable
with large heat transfer area. Hasp coils are best for the cooling because they

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can easily expanded, cleaned when required and also used with high volumes of
the contents.
Special Considerations
¾ Jacketed vessel gives more HTA compared to limpet coil but the HTC are
less than limpet coil.
¾ In jackets, channeling of heating or cooling fluid is not possible. ∆P is
also less in jackets.
¾ Higher velocity and so ∆P can be used in Limpet coil so pumping cost is
higher.
¾ Larger hold up of heating and cooling medium in jackets than coils.
¾ For the same application, jacket requires higher thickness then the coils.
¾ Construction of jacket is easy and less costly compared to coil.

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Steps to DESIGN reaction vessel

1. Pressure and temperatures is main criteria

2. Identifying the kinetics
3. Calculating the volume of reactor
4. Optimizing the proportion of vessel (D and L or H)
5. Designing of shell and its components
6. Designing of agitators
7. Designing of jackets
8. Designing of coils

The methods for designing:

1. Making shell thick enough in proportion to its diameter and length so that it
is self supported.
2. Using the stay bolt for attaching the inner wall to outer wall.
3. Using the stiffeners or corrugations in the shell or vessel.
Some idea about jackets

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Heat Transfer Coefficients Inside Agitated Process Vessels

In order to complete the overall heat transfer coefficient calculation, an estimate
must also be made inside the process vessel. The following estimate should
yield reasonable results:

Where:

Ad = agitator diameter
N = agitator speed, rev/s
All other variables as previously defined
a is defined by the table below:

Agitator Surface a
Turbine Jacket 0.62
Turbine Coil 1.50
Paddle Jacket 0.36
Paddle Coil 0.87
Anchor Jacket 0.46
Propeller Jacket 0.54
Propeller Coil 0.83

Calculating the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

When calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient for a system, the vessel
wall resistance and any jacket fouling must be taken into account:

Notice that the thermal conductivity of the vessel wall and the wall thickness
are included in the calculation. A typical jacket fouling factor is around 0.001 h
ft2 °F/Btu. When calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient, use a
"common sense" analysis of the final value. The table below will give some
guidance to reasonable final values:

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DESIGNING OF PLAIN JACKET

Heat Transfer Coefficients: Conventional Jacket without Baffles

(hj De / k) = 1.02 (NRe) 0.45 (NPr) 0.33 (De/ L) 0.4 (Djo/

Dji) 0.8 (NGr) 0.05

Where:
hj = Local heat transfer coefficient on the jacket side
De = Equivalent hydraulic diameter
NRe = Reynolds Number
NPr = Prandtl Number
L = Length of jacket passage
Djo = Outer diameter of jacket
Dji = Inner diameter of jacket
NGr = Graetz number

The Reynolds Number is defined as:

NRe = DVU/P
Where D is the equivalent diameter, V is the fluid velocity, U is the fluid
density, P and is the fluid viscosity.

The Prandtl Number is defined as:

NPr = Cp P / k
Where Cp is the specific heat, P is the viscosity, and k is the thermal
conducitivity of the fluid.

The Graetz Number is defined as:

NGr = (m Cp) / (k L)
Where m is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat, k is the thermal
conducitivity, and L is the jacket passage length.

The equivalent diameter is defined as follows:

De = Djo-Dji for laminar flow

De = ((Djo)2 - (Dji)2)/Dji for turbulent flow

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Heat Transfer Coefficients: Conventional Jacket with Baffles

For conventional jackets with baffles, the following can be used to calculate the
heat transfer coefficient:

hj De/k= 0.027(NRe)0.8 (NPr)0.33 (μ/μw)0.14 (1+3.5 (De/Dc) ) ( For NRe >

10,000)

hj De/k = 1.86 [ (NRe) (NPr) (Dc/De) ] 0.33 (μ/μw)0.14 ( For NRe < 2100 )

Two new variables are introduced. Dc is defined as the centerline diameter of

the jacket passage. It is calculated as Dji + ((Djo-Dji)/2). The viscosity at the
jacket wall is now defined as μw. When calculating the heat transfer
coefficients, an effective mass flow rate should be taken as 0.60 x feed mass
flow rate to account for the substantial bypassing that will be expected. De is
defined at 4 x jacket spacing. The flow cross sectional area is defined as the
baffle pitch x jacket spacing.

Hydraulic Radius: Conventional Jacket with Baffles

Referring to the graphic above, the hydraulic radius is calculated as follows:

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Designing Of Vessel Shell With Half Coil

A half coil is the part of Taurus, for which

For a 180° central angle:

Equivalent Heat Transfer Diameter, De = π/4 Dci

Cross Section Area of Flow, Ax = π/8 (Dci2)

For a 120° central angle:

Equivalent Heat Transfer Diameter, De = 0.708 Dci

Cross Section Area of Flow, Ax = 0.154(Dci2)

Here Dci = central diameter of coil passage = Dji + tc

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Heat transfer coefficient for coil type jacket

hj De/ k= 0.027(NRe)0.8 (NPr)0.33 (μ/μW)0.14 (1+3.5 (Dci/De) )

(For NRe>10,000)
hj De/ k = 1.86 [ (NRe) (NPr) (Dci/De) ] 0.33 (μ/μW)0.14

(For NRe<2,100)
The Reynolds Number is defined as:

NRe = DeVU/P
Where De is the equivalent diameter, V is the fluid velocity, U is the fluid
density, and P is the fluid viscosity.

The Prandtl Number is defined as:

NPr = Cp P / k
Where Cp is the specific heat, P is the viscosity, and k is the thermal
conducitivity of the fluid.

The Graetz Number is defined as:

NGr = (m Cp) / (k L)
Where m is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat, k is the thermal
conducitivity, and L is the jacket passage length.

The equivalent diameter is defined as follows:

De = Djo-Dji for laminar flow

De = ((Djo)2 - (Dji)2)/Dji for turbulent flow

Mechanical Design
Circumferential stresses induce in the coil at the junction with the shell and
jacket is given as (Due to pressure in the vessel),

pdc Dci
f pc
2tcc
and the longitudinal stress of coil due to coil pressure is given as,

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pDci
f ac
4tcc  2.5tsc
where p = internal pressure inside the half coil
DCi = internal diameter of the half coil
t’c = thickness of the half coil excluding corrosion allowance
t’s = thickness of the shell excluding corrosion allowance
Total circumferential stress in shell is given by, summation of circumferential
stress in shell and longitudinal stress in coil

f ps f p  f ac
pcDi pDci

2t sc 4t cc  2.5t sc
Where p’ = internal design pressure in vessel
Di = inside diameter of shell
Total longitudinal stress in coil is given by the summation of three stresses;
1. due to internal pressure (ga)
2. due to pressure in the coil (gac)
3. bending stress in the shell due to distortion between the shell and coil (gb)

f as f a  f ac  f b

p' Di pDCi 2'pDCo 2

f as  
4tsc c c
4tc  2.5ts 3ts2
where 'p = maximum differential pressure between the coil and shell.
The thickness of coil and shell is selected such that ƒps and ƒas < ƒJ
The vessel wall thickness can be calculated by the equation given by the Lame’s
theorem based on internal pressure and Model brown equation based on
external pressure.

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Preferred thickness of half coil tc = 0.3 to 1.2ts t 3mm

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Designing Of Vessel Shell With Channel Jacket (Dimpled Jacket)

Designing is been done based on the uniformally loaded flat plate restrained at
the ends. The thickness is given as;

k1 p
ts d C
f1
k2 p
tc d C
f2
Where d = as shown in the figure
P = internal pressure of the jacket
g1, g2 = stresses in the material at the appropriate temperature.
k1 = 0.167 and k2 = 0.12
for higher jacket pressure d can be reduce to reduce the thickness.

hj Do/k= j (NRe) (NPr)0.33 ( For 1000 < NRe < 50,000)

Where:

j = 0.0845 (w/x)0.368 (Amin/Amax)-0.383 NRe-0.305

w = center-to-center distance between dimples

x = center-to-center distance between dimples parallel to flow
Note: (w/x) is equal to one for square spacings as is often the case
Do = (d1 + d2)/2
Amin = z (w-Do)
Amax = zw

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DESIGNING OF COOLING COIL

Time required to drain cooling coils in vessel depends upon

x Overall coil height
x Diameter of helical coil
Where
x Inside diameter of tube t = time in sec
D = Diameter of helical coil
x Friction factor d = Inside diameter of coil/tube
P = Viscosity of liquid
x Slop ot pitch of helical coil U = Density of liquid
x Liquid velocity at coil discharge

H
Time required
t where S = Slope or pitch of coil
S .V
0.5
ª 2g x d x S º
V 1.8« »¼ V = velocity at coil dischage
¬ SB
0.2
ª § d ·º§ dU ·
B 0.184«1  3.5¨ ¸»¨¨ ¸¸
¬ © D ¹¼© P ¹ H = overall coil height

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Friction factor for straight tube

g = 64/NRe
Friction factor for coil is given by

gc = Ig
§ di ·
Where I 1  1.73 Re 0.2 ¨ ¸k
©R¹

di = Inside diameter of tube

R = Mean radius of coil

k = 0.262 + 0.326(di/R)3.5

So

64 ª º
4.5
§ d i · 0.2 § di ·
«1  0.4533¨ ¸ Re  0.564¨ ¸
0.2
fC Re »
Re «¬ ©R¹ ©R¹ »¼

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Nusselt number for straight tube

1
ª § di ·º 3
Nu «3.66  1.61 x Pe x ¨ L
3 3
¸» where Pe = Peclet number = Re x
¬ © ¹¼
Pr

Spirality constant for coil

§d ·
CS 1  1.77¨ i ¸
©R¹

1
ª § d ·º 3
§ § d ··
Nu «3.663  1.613 x Pe x ¨ i ¸» ¨¨1  1.77¨ i ¸ ¸¸
¬ MPS/NN
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Index of operational efficiency of coil system is defined as ratio of friction

factor to Nusselt number

64 ª º
4.5
§ d i · 0.2 § di ·
«1  0.4533¨ ¸ Re  0.564¨ ¸ Re 0.2
»
fC Re «¬ ©R¹ ©R¹ »¼
1
NuC ª § d i ·º 3
§ § d ··
«3.66 3
 1.613
x Pe x ¨ ¸» ¨¨1  1.77¨ i ¸ ¸¸
¬ © L ¹¼ © © R ¹¹
fC
In order to have maximum efficiency of coil system should be minimum
NuC

§ f ·
d ¨¨ C ¸¸
© Nu C ¹ 0
with respect to di/R or §d ·
d¨ i ¸
©R¹
Final condition for optimal efficiency is
3.5 4.5
§d · §d ·
2.54¨ i ¸  3.49¨ i ¸  0.453 1.77 Re 0.2
©R¹ ©R¹
It is observed that for low values of di/R less than 0.05, the Reynolds number
for optimal performance attains asymptotic value of around 908.

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