BOTANY

10. Castor beans – blocks ricin production (poisonous),

produces castor oil used as a lubricant and shampoo
OUTLINE
I Topic 1
A Subtopic A
B Subtopic B
i SubSub PLANT CHARACTERISTICS AND DIVERSITY
II Topic 2
A Subtopic A

INTRODUCTION TO PLANT SCIENCE

BOTANY

• Plant biology
• Scientific study of plants

A PLANT

• Plants are photosynthetic organisms that are usually

considered as the primary producers in a food chain. PLANTS ARE MULTICELLULAR EUKARYOTES
• Most plants have green leaves, stems, roots and flowers.
• Plants are economically important to humans (agricultural, • Plants are made up of many cells
flavoring, euphoric/hallucinogenic, wood and medicinal • Plant cells are contains membrane-bound organelles
plants) including a nucleus
• Fundamental source of food and medicine
PLANTS ARE PHOTOSYNTHETIC
NATURAL SELECTION
• Process by which plants create their own food
• Process through which populations of living organisms
• Not all plants can do this
adapt and change to harsh environmental conditions
• Carbon Dioxide + Water + Solar energy + Chlorophyll =
• Species having specific features caused them to adapt and
Sugar
reproduce and pass these features to their offspring
Cacti have evolved their true leaves into spikes to avoid
water loss and made their stem photosynthetic which is PLANTS HAVE CELL WALL
why they’re green
• Cell wall protects and give support to other organelles in a
CONSERVATION BIOLOGY cell
• It is made up of cellulose which are made up of multiple
• Is critical area for research glucose
• Prevents extinction of species
PLANTS HAVE TWO ADULT FORMS
BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Sporophyte
• Seeks to develop new plant products through genetic Asexual adult form of plants
modification Macroscopic
• Produces Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Roots, stems, flowers, fruit
Diploid
TOP 10 GMO • Gametophyte
Sexual Adult form of plants
1. Biofortified Soya beans – pest resistant Microscopic
2. Edible cotton seeds Female – egg cell found inside the flower
3. Jatropha – produces biofuel Male – pollen found outside the flower
4. Golden rice – contains beta carotene Haploids
5. Flood Resistant Rice • Fertilization
6. Sugar beets – weed resistant Egg(N) + Sperm(N) > Zygote(2N) > Embryo (seed) >
7. Yeast – feed on agricultural waste and excrete crude oil seedling > plant > Sporophyte > Gametophyte
8. Cassava – Biocassava plus vits, proteins, virus resistant
9. Papaya – pest resistant

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 1

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
PLANT’S EMBRYO IS PROTECTED WITHIN THE • The universe is assumed to be created by deities.
MOTHER PLANT • Uses faith as a fundamental principle of all religions.
• States that God’s action cannot be studied (God’s
• Egg cells get fertilized in the embryo where the seed will be intervention)
growing once egg fertilized to be a zygote.
METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM

• Supernatural forces that cannot be studied including luck,

bad omens, accurate horoscopes, and more.
THE 4 GROUPS OF PLANTS
SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY

• Started with Greek philosophers

• Develop logical explanations for simple observations.
Example is he philosophical postulations of atoms by
Democritus (400 BC)
No experiment, nor verification were done

UNIFYING CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND PLANTS

PTERIDOPHYTES
1ST CONCEPT
• Ferns and allies which include psilopsids, lycopsids, and
horsetails • Plant metabolism is based on the
• The largest group of seedless vascular plants principles of chemistry and physics
Metabolism is the sum total of all
BRYOPHYTES biological and biochemical
processes done inside an
organism
• Non-vascular plants meaning they have no xylem and ▪ Anabolism
phloem ▪ Catabolism
• Plants that do not have true stems roots or leaves Chlorophyll – is a green pigment that captures light energy.
• Includes mosses, liverworts and hornworts It is green due to Magnesium (C55H27O5N4Mg)
• The structure of a chlorophyll includes a tetrapyrrole
and a hydrocarbon tail
ANGIOSPERMS • Magnesium = Green (Chlorophyll), Fe = Heme (Red
blood cell), Cu = Turacin (red pigment)

• Largest group of modern-day plants

• Angio (flower) 2ND CONCEPT
• Flowering plants
• Have seeds inside the fruit • Plants have a means of storing and using information which
• Can be either monocots or dicots is through the genes
Deoxyribonucleic acid is made up of nucleotides which
GYMNOSPERMS can be further broken down into a nitrogenous base,
phosphate and sugar.
• Gymno (Naked) Sperms (Seed)
• No fruit wall around their seeds 3RD CONCEPT
• No flowering plants
• Conifers, Cycads, Gnetophytes • Plants reproduce, passing their genes and information on
their offspring
Bryophytes Pteridophytes Angiosperms Gymnosperms
Riccia Cyathea Bamboo Giant Redwood 4TH CONCEPT
Marchantia Horsetails Cactus Pines
Funaria Clubmoss Pothos Ginkgo Biloba
Anthoceros Sugar Beets • Genes, and the information they contain, change
Notothylas Corn
Sphagnum Aloccasia Mutations may occur and may affect the gene, causing
change
SCIENTIFIC METHOD Gradual evolution (mutants) or variation may occur in
certain species
• A means of analyzing the
physical universe 5TH CONCEPT
• Observations are the basis for
formulating a hypothesis • Plants must survive in their own environment
• All accepted information came • Plants adapt by production of new plant parts
from documented and Skunk cabbage has a heat generating type of flower to
controlled experimentations. prevent freezing during winter
Sir Francis Bacon – a firm
believer in the power of 6TH CONCEPT
experimentation and
scientific method to • Plants are highly integrated organisms
uncover the truth.
• All parts of plants are interconnected with one another
• Structure and metabolism of 1 part have impact on other
RELIGIOUS METHOD parts of the plant

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 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
• Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system (Root and Shoot ▪ They are single-celled and thrive in extremely hot
system) > Organism (plant) boiling water found in environments like volcanic
thermal vents in the ocean and hot springs.
Eubacteria
7TH CONCEPT ▪ Single-celled prokaryotic organisms.
▪ Their cell walls do not contain cellulose.
▪ Some are autotrophic and they mostly reproduce
• An individual plant is the temporary result of genes and
asexually.
environment interaction
▪ They have indeterminate growth. This kingdom
makes up most of the bacteria in the world.
8TH CONCEPT Protista
▪ Single-celled eukaryotic organisms.
• Plants do not have a purpose (teleology) nor decision- ▪ Cell walls of some species contain cellulose.
making (Anthropomorphism) capacity. ▪ Some are autotrophic and reproduce sexually and
asexually.
WHAT PROPERTIES ARE PRESENT IN LIVING ▪ They have two adult forms, spores and gametes.
THINGS? ▪ They have Indeterminate or determinate growth.
Fungi
• All living beings have the following characteristics, if one is ▪ Multicellular eukaryotic organism.
missing, the material is not alive: ▪ Cell walls are composed mainly of chitin.
1. Metabolism ▪ Heterotrophs
2. Non-random organization ▪ Reproduce Sexually and Asexually
3. Growth ▪ Has indeterminate or determinate growth
4. Heredity and reproduction Plantae
5. Capacity to respond to the environment ▪ Multicellular eukaryotic organisms.
• In addition: ▪ Cell walls mainly contain cellulose.
1. Develop (young & adult ones have distinctive ▪ Some are heterotrophs and most are autotrophic.
characteristics) ▪ Reproduce sexually and asexually.
2. Evolve (changing with time as environment changes) ▪ They have two adult forms, spores and gametes.
▪ They have Indeterminate or determinate growth.
DIFFERENT FIELDS OF BOTANY Animalia
▪ Multicellular eukaryotic organisms.
PLANT SYSTEMATICS ▪ They have no cell walls.
▪ Heterotrophs.
▪ Reproduce mostly sexually and some asexually.
• Evolutionary History of Plants ▪ They have determinate growth.
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)
Father of Taxonomy
Taxonomy is a system for
naming, ranking, and
classifying organisms is still
in wide use today (with
many changes)
The Scientific name of an
organism is the proper way
of calling their species. This can be either found in the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature or
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
Scientific name
▪ by convention is the first word of binomial names
genus and is always capitalized
▪ second word refers to specific epithet and is not
capitalized
▪ Italicized
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY: PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
domain > kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus
> specific epithet • plant aspects including photosynthesis, flowering and
• THREE CELLULAR DOMAINS OF LIFE hormones.

Archaea PLANT ANATOMY

▪ unicellular prokaryotes, these microorganisms are
typically found inhabiting and thriving in extreme • Relation of structure to forms
environmental conditions.
Bacteria PLAEOBOTANY
▪ also prokaryotes, having no distinguished
organelles or membrane-bound nucleus.
Eukarya • evolutionary relationship of fossil plants to living plants.
▪ The organisms in this domain are eukaryotic,
meaning they have a membrane-bound nucleus PLANT MORPHOLOGY
and organelles.
• Six Kingdoms of Life • Plant life forms, and evolution of plants
Archaebacteria
▪ Archaebacteria are the oldest known living PLANT ECOLOGY
organisms.

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 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
• Plants relate to the environment, human effects to increased
rate of plant extinction.

PLANT GENETICS

• transfer of genetic information from one generation to the

next.

PHYCOLOGY

• Study of Algae

MYCOLOGY TAKE NOTE!

• Study of Fungi • Not all plants are photosynthetic, some plants cannot make
their own food including rafflesia and mistletoe which are
MICROBIOLOGY chemosynthetic plants
• There are organisms that are photosynthetic other than
plants, this includes cyanobacteria and algae
• Study of disease-causing microorganisms
• Bacteria were once considered as plants
• Fungi are never green since they have different
HORTICULTURE
tissues/physiology as plants.
• Ploidy can either be a haploid or diploid
• Study of Ornamental Plants • Phyte means plant

FORESTRY PLANT CELLS

• Study of Forests and products CELLS

AGRICULTURE • Basic structural and functional unit because physiological

processes are encountered and manifested at cellular level.
• Study of crops and soil management • All living organisms are made up of cells
• Cells arise from preexisting cells through mitosis and
POMOLOGY meiosis in eukaryote and binary fission in prokaryotes
e.g. respiration, digestion, growth and development.
• Study of fruit trees
ROBERT HOOKE (1665)
HERBAL MEDICINE AND ETHNOBOTANY • discovered tiny compartments in cork tissue (cells)

• Study of the traditional uses of plants R. J. H. DUTROCHET( 1824)

• osmosis (movement of water), effect of light on plants
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
ROBERT BROWN (1833)
• Study of important plant compounds • nucleus, cytoplasmic streaming (movement of cytosol and
Papain in papaya organelles), Brownian movement
Momordicin in ampalaya
Beta carotene in tomato MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838)
Capsaicin in chilies • Cofounder of cell theory, stated that all plant parts are
Nicotine in tobacco composed of cell
Caffeine in coffee
Ginkgolides in ginkgo THEODOR SCHWANN (1839)
Resins in pines
Latex in rubber tree • cell theory
Cinchona tree an quinine is used for the treatment of Schwann and Schleiden are tenets of cell theory
malaria.
Green jet fuel is made from the Jatropha plant
TWO BASIC TYPES OF CELLS

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 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
PROKARYOTES 2. Freely permeable membrane
▪ Allow everything to pass
• Pro meaning before and karyon meaning nucleus ▪ Impossible for living things to possess along with
impermeable membrane
• Cell without nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
3. Selectively permeable
• Has naked DNA meaning that DNA is not enclosed by a
nuclear membrane
DIFFUSION
• DNA has no histones
• E.g. eubacteria, cyanobacteria and archaebacteria
• the movement of molecules from a higher concentration to
EUKARYOTES lower concentration
• Movement of molecules across the phospholipid bilayer,
mostly hydrophobic substances
• cell with nucleus and membrane bounded organelles.
• E.g. passive transport which does not require energy
• Eu meaning true and karyon meaning nucleus
• Hydrophobic subs – cross membrane (oils, fats, greasy
• E.g. protists, fungi, plants, animals. substances- simple diffusion)
* Animal cell- no cell wall, plastid, vacuole and
glyoxysome while plants all have these
Osmosis
CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMELEMMA
• Movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane
• Follows he concentration gradient from high to low
concentration which is determined by the amount of
dissolved solute

Fluid Mosaic Model

• Regulate passage of molecules in/out
• Divides cell into compartment
• Acts as surfaces w/c hold enzymes
• Exocytosis/ endocytosis Isotonic Solution
• Selectively permeable (either semi-permeable or ▪ Equal Solute Concentration
differentially permeable) ▪ There is no net movement of water as the amount
• Dynamic and constantly changing of water going in and out of the cell is equal
As nature of membrane changes, nature of cell ▪ No change in the size cell
changes ▪ Normal state, state of balance, homeostasis
Fluid Mosaic Model: ▪ 0.89%
▪ As a heterogeneous membrane, intrinsic proteins Hypotonic Solution
(extrinsic found only on the surface of the cell ▪ Greater water potential in the cell meaning there is
membrane) can diffuse laterally like lipids while high solute concentration inside the cell
other proteins are bound to adjacent proteins ▪ Water goes in the cell (endosmosis) causing it to
▪ Presence f proteins and cholesterol embedded swell
▪ Has a trilaminar layer containing a lipid bilayer ▪ Cell will increase in size but a plant cell will not
containing proteins with a hydrophilic head and burst due to its cell wall applying pressure (turgor
hydrophobic tails sandwiched in between pressure) to the cell membrane keeping it from
(Composed of proteins (60%) and phospholipid busting
bilayer (40%)) ▪ Turgid – plant cell full of water
▪ Turgidity – state of cell when swelled
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: ▪ < 0.89%
Hypertonic Solution
• Small nonpolar molecules –gases, CO2, O2 (can move ▪ Lower water potential in the cell meaning there is a
through simple diffusion) higher concentration of solute outside the cell
• Small uncharged polar molecules – H20 (moves through ▪ Cell will lose water causing it to shrink
osmosis), ethanol and urea (plasmolysis) as the protoplasm shrinks away from
the plasma membrane
▪ Plasmolyzed – state of the cell in plasmolysis
PROTEIN CHANNEL:
▪ > 0.89%
• Ions and charged molecules
• Passes through with active transport and facilitated diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

TRANSMEMBRANE MOVEMENT • requires proteins e.g. hydrophylic molecules

• Charged substances – move through intrinsic proteins which
MEMBRANE TYPES act as channel (facilitated diffusion)
1. Impermeable membrane
▪ Does not allow anything to pass through ACTIVE TRANSPORT

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 5

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION

• transport against concentration gradient low to high water CELL WALL

potential
• Cells use ATP to go against the current to go from low to
high
• Molecular pumps (protein) – bind molecule from 1 side and
release it to the other using ATP ( Active Transport)
Primary - involves uniform (one molecule is
transported) and cotransport (two molecules into
different directions)
Secondary
▪ Antiport - movement in opposite occur in opposite
directions • Protects the cellular contents and limits cell size
▪ Symport - same direction but • Composed of cellulose (a polymer made up of molecules of
the sugar, glucose is the most important
Bulk transport • Other important are lignins (sec. wall) which add rigidity, and
• transport of large food molecules waxes such as cutin (epidermis) and suberin (phellem or
cork cells) which reduce water loss from cells
Exocytosis Many glucose linked one byone to form a fybril or fiber
▪ outside, towards the outside of the cell, movement known as cellulose, e.g. cotton (important cellulosic
of particles towards the outside of the cells materials
Endocytosis Some cell walls are provided with important compounds
▪ where plants cells engulf solid articles and move. It like lignins
inside A layer of cutin is cuticle
▪ Serves as protection and prevent excessive water
loss. ‘’
▪ Compound deposited on the cell wall of phellem or
cork cells (bark is the phellem or cork)
▪ Another waxy layer which reduce water loss

PLASMODESMATA

PLANT CELL ORGANELLES • Through this, cells get to exchange materials

• fine holes in primary walls, has plasma membrane, tubule
• A plant cell consists of three general parts: (desmostubule) attached to ER
Cell wall • tiny connection between two cells allowing communication
Protoplast between adjacent cells
Cell inclusion Primary Pit Field
▪ area w/ clustered plasmodesmata, increase
transport of materials between Cells
“All protoplasm w/in a plant is part of 1 interconnected
mass called ”symplast”
▪ Due to the symplast the individuality of the plant is
diminished because the cells are sharing almost
the same molecules and compounds
“Individuality of plant cell is diminished’’
Plant = symplast (Protoplasm)+ apoplast (intercellular
space + wall)
▪ Apoplast – permits rapid diffusion of gases

CYTOPLASM

• Fluid portion containing the nucleus and the rest of the

organelles; material left after the removal of nucleus and
vacuole
• Cytosole

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 6

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
DICTYOSOMES
NUCLEUS
• Modifies material
• more genetic secreted by cell (
material than protein
prokaryotes modification), ex..
plasmid. Addition of sugar to
• Histones with the protein ==
deoxyribonucleic glycoprotein
acid (DNA) to pack • Stacks of thin
the genetic material vesicles held
into compact together by flat/
chromosomes. curved array
• Nuclear envelope formed of a double membrane. • Has 2 faces
• The fluid portion is nucleoplasm (karyoplasm or karyolymph.
• The nucleolus synthesize RNA. FORMING FACE
• The pores are called nuclear pores, for transport of • where vesicles accumulate, embedded
substances fr nucleus to protoplasm
• Polysomes = ribosomes + mRNA
MATURING FACE
• Very visible under a compound microscope
• where vesicles are released, contents have been processed
NUCLEOPLASM
GOLGI BODY
• Ass. Of DNA, enzymes, histones, RNA, water • Association of hundreds o dictyosmes
• Chromatin = DNA + histone Cisternae
• Nucleus & nucleoplasm are different in diff. ages of cell. ▪ stacks of wide thin flattened vesicle formed by ER
Why? vesicles w/c accumulated & fused together at 1
Rapidly div cell= more DNA; side of dictyosome.
Young cell = small w/ large nuclei ▪ Movement of
Mature cells = large with small nucleus molecules form the
endoplasmic reticulum
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) ▪ Autophagy is the
destination of defective
parts of the cells

MITOCHONDRION

• Power house of the

• Carries large molecules like protein (not transported by cell
diffusion) • Produces ATP
• Directly connected to the outer membrane of the nucleus • Responsible for cell
• System of narrow tubes and sheets of membrane w/c form respiration
a network throughout the cytoplasm • Circular DNA lacks
histones, small
ribosomes
ROUGH ER
• Respiration is
mediated by
• Attached to ribosomes enzymes bound to
• Protein produced as storage product like legumes; remains mitochondrial
in ER • Membrane
• Protein to be secreted (mucilage, nectar); detach, move to • Cristae- large sheets/ tubes formed by folded inner
plasma membrane, fuse with it and release its contents by mitochondrial membrane
exocytosis • Inner Mitochondrial mem- Selectively Permeable; with
pumps/ channels
SMOOTH ER provides room for large number of enzymes for more
efficient production of ATP
• Lipid synthesis, membrane assembly • Matrix – liq, where rxn takes place
• Abundant in cells w/c prod large amount of fatty acids Can be seen in Electron Microscope
• Cutin/ wax on epidermal cells, oil (palm, coconut,
fragrances)

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 7

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
Elaioplast
CHLOROPLAST ▪ Tissues grown with no light
▪ stores oils and fats; in tissues grown w/o light
• Main organelle
for
photosynthesis
• Has an Outer
membrane
• Has an Inner
membrane,
highly folded
• Stroma – inner STORAGE PRODUCTS:
fluid where
• Sugar is polymerized to starch grains inside chloroplast)
carbohydrates
Root, bark, wood (cant photosynthesize)
are produced
• Proplastid
• Ribosomes
amyloplast ( store starch)
• Circular DNA, ▪ Potato, yam, squash, starchy seeds
not ass w/ histones ▪ Starch are stored in different shapes per plant
• Folding of Inner membrane forms: increased surface area,
inc space for pigments insertion
Thylakoid
▪ single membrane forming stacks of flattened
vesicles called grana CHROMOPLASTIDS
▪ Grana – surrounded by liquid stroma
▪ Selectively Permeable; due to the difference of • Colored plastids
concentration of chemicals inside from the stroma
▪ Granum is a stack of thylakoid where light reaction STORAGE PRODUCTS:
of photosynthesis takes place • Highly colored chromoplast, produced from thylakoid when
chloroplast produces high amt of colored lipids
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY • Fe – stored attached to protein (phytoferritin) in plastids
(aleuroneplast or proteinoplast)
• The endosymbiotic theory states that mitochondria and
chloroplasts in today's eukaryotic cells were once separate RNA- RIBONUCLEIC ACID
prokaryotic microbes.
• Coding, decoding, regulation, expression of genes
PHOTSYNTHESIS • A single strand molecule found in the cytoplasm
• mRNA is also used for genetic expression

• Photochemical
process takes
place in the
presence of light
• Dar reactions are
Biochemical
• Light reaction
takes place in the
grana, producing
ATP and NADPH
which powers
chloroplast to
perform the
Calvin cycle to produce glucose
• CO2 is converted into CHO in the stroma

LEUCOPLASTIDS

• Colorless Plastids
Amyloplast
▪ Abundant
in starchy
plants
▪ stores
starch.
Aleuroneplast DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
▪ stores • Inside the nucleus
protein • Double helical
▪ Legumes

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 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
• Composed of deoxynucleotides which can be broken down
into a phosphate sugar and a nitrogenous base CENTRIOLES

PEROXISOME • Found in animal cells only

• Microbodies are about 0.5 to 1.5 micrometer in diameter • associated with the formation of spindle fibers during cell
which are smaller organelles compared to major organelles interphase.
• 2 types Spindle fibers move the chromosomes during cell
Peroxisomes division.
▪ serves for detoxification inside cells (destruction of
worn out or detective tissues) VACUOLE
▪ free radical scavengers
▪ Has catalase
• Occupied 80-90% of the cell
Glyoxysomes
• Contains H2O, salts and digestive enzymes
▪ Are specialized peroxisomes found in plants
(particularly in fat storage tissues of germinating • Derived from small cavities scattered in the cytoplasm
seeds) and also in filamentous fungi. • Cell sap (vacuolar sap/fluid inside the vacuole),enclosed by
▪ Posses the key enzymes of glyoxylate cycle the tonoplast (vacuolar membrane) prevents leaking of
(isocitrate lyase and malate synthase) waste back to cytoplasm
▪ Glyxosomes are found in contact with lipid bodies • In animal: Lysosome
in cotyledons or endosperm where fatty acids are • Functions
being converted to carbohydrate sugars during Maintain turgor pressure
germination. Storage area for nutrients like K
Accumulation of toxic substances
CYTOSOL • Ergastic substances
1. Crystals
▪ Protects plants from animals
• Aka hyaloplasm ▪ a. calcium carbonate
• Clear substance composed of water, enzymes, chem. ▪ b. calcium oxalate
Precursors, reaction products in cytoplasm 2. starch and aleurone grains
• Has free ribosomes ( not attached to ER), skeletal structures 3. nitrogenous inclusions – crystalloids or protein
(microtubule, microfilaments) crystals
4. Granules / fibrous mat
CYTOSKELETON ▪ Calcium regulates activity of enzymes
▪ Plant cells regulate Ca conc in protoplasm by
• Cyto meaning Cells and Skeleton meaning framework moving Ca into vacuole where it forms Ca oxalate
• Framework of the cells in the body crystals
• Network of fibers through out the cytoplasm
• Aids in cellular support and movement
• Composed of three components
Microtubules
▪ 20 to 25 nm in diameter (alpha and beta tubulin)
▪ Seen in spindle fibers
Intermediate filaments
▪ (fibrous protein)
3. Microfilament
▪ 3 t o 6 nm in diameter
▪ G-actin

FLAGELLA AND CILIA

• Elaborate microtubule arrangement in flagella and cilia ANTHOCYANIN

• Outer doublets (has 2 arms of protein called Dynein)
• Sliding of 1 set of doublet cause the bending, alternate • not found inside the plastids
sliding ( beating motion) • found in vacuole
• “9+2” arrangement • water soluble pigment
Cilia – short, occur in groups
Flagella – longer, in pair, single or in four FLOWER CELLS

• Petal cell
pigment attraction
• Scent cell
fragrance (chromoplastid rich in lipids)
• Nectary cell
sugar, attraction
• Stamen cell
indirectly involved in sperm cell production
• Carpal cell (ovule)
egg cell
• Fruit cell
sugar, aroma, attraction of fruit eating animal

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 9

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION

UNIT 3. GROWTH AND DIVISION OF THE CELL

CELL TYPES

• Based on Function
Somatic or body cells
▪ maintain life processes
Reproductive cells
▪ production of offspring in animals: gametes

• Based on Chromosome number

Diploid (2N)
▪ 2 sets of chromosome
▪ in human, 2n = 46
▪ In human , all body cells
Haploid (N)
▪ One set of chromosomes
▪ In humans, n=23
▪ In humans, gametes

CONCEPT

• Life cycle includes the stages of initiation, growth and death

• Cell Cycle arrest
Cells stop dividing
• Some cells live for many years but others die shortly after
they mature
• Some cells never stop dividing (Neurons since they never
undergo maturation)

CELL CYCLE

• Cyclic interaction between mitosis & interphase

• Cell Life Cycle
• Cell Cycle can be divided into Growth Phase and Division PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Phase.
Interphase
▪ Gap 1 (G1) • Divide asexually since they have no nucleus
▪ S (synthesis) phase • Since they have no nucleus
▪ Gap 2 (G2) • possess a single circular chromosome, containing about
▪ Gap 0 (GO) 1000 genes
Mitotic phase • Chromosome is replicated
▪ Mitosis • Cell then divides into two cells, a process called binary
▪ Cytokinesis fission (simply divide into two)

DIVISION OF CHLOROPLAST AND MITOCHONDRION

• Similar to the division of prokaryotes

• Accomplished by in furrowing or being pulled in two

INTERPHASE

G1 OR GAP 1 PHASE

• Synthesis of
nucleotide
• Nucleotides are
monomer of nucleic
acid, (DNA)
• Consists of a
nitrogenous bases a
sugar, and a
phosphate group
• Longest part of cell growth
• Characterizes by one big nucleus at the center that has an
intact nuclear membrane an has a visible intact nucleolus

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 10

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION
MITOSIS
S PHASE
• Division Phase of the Cell Cycle
• The genes in the nucleus are replicated or duplicated
• A gene is a polymer of nucleotide with unique sequence
• Chromosome is thousands of gene attached together in a
linear sequence
▪ Bacteria has a circular
• Chromosomes doubled
• Two types of gene duplication
Endoreduplication
▪ repeated cycles
of DNA
replication
resulting to
many copies of
each gene.
Gene Amplification
▪ repeated cycles
of DNA
replication, but few genes are repeatedly
replicated.
PROPHASE
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
• Stage of Chromosome
• Centromere condensation
primary constriction in the chromosomes • Early prophase
binding sites of DNA binding protein The centrosomes
• Kinetochore move toward
Button-like structures on the outer surface of opposite poles of the
centromere cell, organizing the
Attachment of microtubules and chromosome motility spindle microtubules
between them.
• Late Prophase
G2 PHASE Cell features:
▪ Chromosome
• Last for 3-5 hours becomes visible
• Synthesis of due to
protein for processing chromosomes condensation
enzymes for nuclear breakdown (Coiling and
alpha and beta tubulins for mitotic thickening)
spindles ▪ Nucleolus disappearance
▪ Breakdown of nuclear membrane
CYCLINS ▪ Spindle fibers become visible

• Proteins that help the cell to advance thru the cell cycle METAPHASE
• Checkpoints in between processes during interphase with
specific cyclin dependent kinase: • Spindle fibers attached to the
Cyclin D: G1 to S chromosomes
Cyclin A: S to G2 • Alignment of Chromosomes
Cyclin B: G2 to M called metaphase plate (cell
center)
GAP 0 • Duplication of centromeres
• Number of chromosomes id
• cell will leave the cycle and quit dividing doubled, but the size of each
chromosome is halved
• may be temporary resting period or more permanent
• Example: a cell that has reached an end stage of
development and will no longer divide (e.g. neuron- animal
cell, epidermal outgrowth – plant cell)
ANAPHASE

• Stage of Chromosome
Separation
• Centromere divides
• Depolymerization
(Shortening) of spindle
fibers inhibited by deuterium
oxide enhanced by
colchicine
• Elongation of polar spindle
fibers
• Shortening Kinetochore

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 11

 1ST SHIFTING EXAMINATION

Anaphase promoting complex (APC) ensures the CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMALS

separation of sister chromatids
• Contractile ring
• separation is controlled by:
• Cleavage Furrow
Spindle checkpoint – ensures that all chromosomes are
aligned at metaphase plate prior to anaphase • Two daugther cells
APC – anaphase promoting complex- destroys securin
and activates separase
Securin is an inhibitor of anaphase MEIOSIS

• a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-

reproducing organisms
• The form of cell division by which GAMETES, with HALF the
number of CHROMOSOMES, are produced. HAPLOID (n)
• Meiosis is SEXUAL reproduction.
• Sex cells divide to produce GAMETES (sperm or egg).
• Gametes have HALF the # of chromosomes.
• Occurs only in GONADS (testes or ovaries).
Male: SPERMATOGENESIS -sperm
Female: OOGENESIS - egg or ova
• TWO divisions (MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II).

TELOPHASE

• Stage of Nuclear Reconstitution

• exactly opposite of prophase
• Formation of nuclear membrane
• Disappearance of chromosomes
• Appearance of nucleolus
• Disappearance of spindle fibers

REFERENCES

Notes from the discussions by Sir Ross Vasquez

University of Santo Tomas - PowerPoint presentation:

• Lecture 01 – Introduction to Plant Science
• Lecture 02 – Plant Cells

CYTOKINESIS

• Division of the protoplast

• Involves the formation of phragmoplast (Filaments +
microtubules + trapped vesicles)
• Formation of cell plate (structure that build the Cell wall)
• Complete formation of 2 daughter cells
• Equational – retains the same number of chromosomes
Interphase – 48 chromosomes
Prophase– 48 chromosomes
Metaphase – 48 chromosomes
Anaphase – 96 chromosomes
Telophase– 48 chromosomes each

UNIVESITY OF SANTO TOMAS | 1C – PH 12