FUCULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BIULT ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL OF SURVEYING AND GEOSPATIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMET OF SURVYING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEGREE OF MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY IN SURVEYING

TOPIC

USING LIDAR BASED MOBILE MAPPING

TECHNOLOGY TO PRODUCE DATA FOR UNPAVED
ROAD HIGHWAY DESIGN (CASE OF ELDORET BYPASS
ROAD).

BY

NAME: BENJAMIN OKELLOH NDWALLAH

REG. NO. 113P/01773

Thesis Proposal submitted to the School of Surveying and Geospatial Sciences for
the award of Degree of Masters of Technology in Surveying Engineering

17
 SCHAPTER ONE

Keywords: mobile LIDAR; transportation; MLS; mobile laser scanning

Introduction
The study will be carried on an unpaved roads which are typically low-volume roads linking
small agricultural communities to nearby towns and markets. According to a research study done
by the US Department of Transportation these roads tend to experience seasonal variations in
traffic volumes with significantly higher flows occurring around harvest time each year
(Chunsun Zhang, 2008). If periods of wet weather and high traffic volumes coincide, damage to
unpaved roads can be very severe. Such roads are also susceptible to damage because of the kind
of vehicles that traverse them. Heavy farm machinery and trucks laden with farm produce can do
more damage to a road than a series of smaller vehicles of equal net mass.
The construction and maintenance of unpaved roads is usually performed by National
government through its Authorities such as KeNHA, KURA and KeRRA, and county
governments. In Kenya today, for instance, Infrastructure and transportation departments in both
National and County government would have to conduct field surveys to identify problem areas
and schedule maintenance and or Construction activities. Due to the small funding base of both
National and County governments, the human and financial resources available for maintaining
roads are often inadequate, the said departmental officials typically rely on visual inspection,
intuition and occasional spot measurements in their assessments. Yet the importance of timely
identification and rectification of road deformation through loss of crown or damage to the road
base cannot be overstated.

Page 2
1.1. General Background

The Study area will be the proposed Eldoret Bypass. The Bypass length is measuring
approximately 31.9 km. The road under study is located within Rift Valley Province, Uasin
Gishu County in the North Rift Region of the Kenya National Highways Roads Authority. The
road starts at Cheplaskei trading centre which is about 20 km from the Eldoret town along A 104
(Junction with Nakuru - Eldoret (A104) road) South East of Eldoret town and traverses in a north
easterly direction passing through Kapseret trading Centre on Eldoret –Kapsabet – Kisumu road
and eventually terminating at Leseru near Maili Saba (Junction with (B2) Eldoret - Kitale road/
Eldoret - Malaba (A104) road).

The current status of the existing road alignment is gravel which are in relatively poor conditions
and only motorable on a few sections hence very low traffic. The existing carriage way is
approximately 6.0 -10 m wide and without shoulders. Whereas in the other areas, the corridor
has to be acquired. Areas without corridor mainly consist of farmlands and informal settlements.

The proposed road traverses through agricultural lands and commercial land. Commercial
activities such as retails outlets, fuel stations, market canters and residential estates are noticeable
along this road mostly near town centres such as Cheplaskei, and Kapsaret.

The Bypass road traverses through rolling terrain which have hilly or foot hill country where the
slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and occasionally steep slopes are encountered.
The project lies between 1295 meters and 2020 meters above mean sea level.

The proposed Eldoret bypass is intended to divert most of the commercial traffic as well as
create new avenues for local motorists wishing to access or exit the town. The bypass will also
contribute towards reduction of air pollution, road accidents as well as improve efficiency in the
road transportation.

Page 3
Figure 1: Project Location map.

1.2. Statement of the problem

In the design stages of Roads in Kenya, conventional methods such as usage of Theodolite
machine, Total Station instruments and lately usage of GNSS Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS,
have been used to collect the data in a busy and dense highways and streets and unpaved roads.
Such methods or technology have in many a times resulted to: low level of accurate data, traffic
nuisance and work safety; and lots of time and money.

Page 4
1.3. Objectives of the study

The study objectives will be divide into two components i.e general objectives and specific
objectives.

1.3.1 General Objective

General objectives of this study will be the Collection, assimilation, analyzing, designing,
construct, maintaining and storage of data in a very fast, accurate and cost sensitive methods as
compared to the other convectional Survey methods for the unpaved roads.

1.3.2. Research Questions

1. Are the data collected by using the convectional surveying methods provides high
resolution and accurate data for engineering design purposes for unpaved roads?

2. Do the convectional survey methods generate adequate data for wider usage at the design
stages of the engineering projects of unpaved roads?

3. Is the safety of the surveyor and the support staff guaranteed when using the conventional
methods of survey during design data collection period?

4. Is it cost effective in terms of both time and money when using conventional methods to
collect data for any engineering project design?

1.3.3. Specific objectives are:

The specific Objectives of the study will be to:

1. Determine a very high resolution, high accurate original ground level (OGL) data for
highway design and quantities estimation, compared to data quality generated from the
conventional ( Total Station (TS), GNSS Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS) Surveying
methods .

2. Establish a dense, geospatial dataset in a 3D virtual world format that can be explored
and selected from a variety of CAD surfaces by the Design Engineers during his design

Page 5
 works as compared to conventional methods where specific datasets (CAD surfaces) are
picked, prepared and presented to the design Engineer.

3. Determine and submit Survey data for design (to the design engineer) within the shortest
time (days) compared to the time taken while using the convectional methods which
takes months hence the effects on cost for collecting the data.

4. Establish how to carry out data collection within the varied work environment such as
jungles and busy highways and streets with maximum safety on the operating staff.

1.4. Justification and Relevance

Since active sensors do not require sunlight, they can be used either during the day or at night
unlike other convectional survey methods that requires light to function well.

The data collected by LiDAR through Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) system are detailed and
dense (enormous) since the equipment can scan up to about 1 km on either sides of the road at a
full 360-degree FOV hence gives the designer the privilege of choosing from the datasets (CAD
surfaces) what is important for his design.

1.5. Scope and Limitations

The Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) mapping system being a new technology in the market, the
cost of acquiring the equipments are still high (costly) hence not readily available with many
Survey or Engineering enterprises. To those who own/have them, the cost/rate for hiring is
somehow expensive hence cannot be met by individuals or young upcoming enterprises (firms).

The other challenge is that managing the process of acquiring data via a MLS survey requires
extensive knowledge and experience.

1.6. Organization of the Project Report

This project comprises five chapters, which are briefly outlined below. In the conclusion, which
is the final chapter, a summary is made of all the results obtained.

Page 6
Chapter 1: Introduction: This chapter discusses the problem statement, objectives and
justification of the study. It brings to focus the problems in the use of convectional survey
methods in collection of data for engineering projects design outlining specifics such as data
accuracy, staff safety during data collection, time taken to collect and present the data and lastly
the amount of data collected. It mentions the expected outcomes and their importance in the field
of engineering.

Chapter 2: Literature review: History of the advent and development of the surveying/ mapping
technology in the engineering field. It starts from analysing the usage of theodolites, total station,
level instruments, Remote Sensing technology, Aerial photography, GNNS (RTK GPS), LiDAR
technology (Terrestrial LiDAR system and airborne systems) then eventually the introduction of
the Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) mapping systems LiDAR for use in infrastructure data
acquisition for design and monitoring of the progress by being able to compute quantities
volumes. This has been documented in terms of its developments, strengths and weaknesses. The
chapter summarizes literature regarding all the methods in a tabular form showing the ease with
which the methods can present the data in a format that can easily be integrated in to a
geographic information systems (GIS) format.

Chapter 3: Methodology: This chapter discusses the step-by-step methodology such as the desk
top activities, field work, staffing and scientific viability of the system and the software used to
collect and present the data for the design of the Highway project. The components of the Mobile
Laser Scanning (MLS) mapping systems equipments and the uses of each component in making
the collected data viable accurate and detailed as is needed for the purposes of engineering
infrastructure design criteria in this case the highway design.

Chapter 4: Results and Analysis: This chapter presents the outcome of using Mobile Laser
Scanning (MLS) mapping systems LiDAR to collect data for use during the design stages of
engineering project case study here a highway design. It discusses the quality of data collected,

Page 7
time spent in collecting and presenting the data, safety aspects during the data collection process
and the general cost for conducting Engineering Survey for an infrastructure.

Chapter 5: Conclusion and recommendations for further research: This chapter summarizes the
contribution of this research in data collection for engineering design and suggests related future
research issues. It highlights the important findings and outlines the major challenges in terms of
in availability of the Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) mapping systems equipment within the
country hence the hiring costs (expensive). It also makes recommendations for future research on
the suitability of the data collected with LiDAR.

SCHAPTER TWO

2.0. Literature Review

Engineering Design data for Highways and other Infrastructure developments in Kenya have for
a long time used the conventional methods such as Land Survey which is of high accuracy level
but time consuming and lots of manpower required; Aerial Survey technology is very good for
medium to small scale works meaning it cover wide areas of study and the maps produced are
used as reference and backups it also takes a short period of time to run but its undoing is that it
requires skilled/ specialized personnel and good weather (the quality and time of flight id
dependant of the prevailing weather conditions); Remote Sensing is good for country coverage
data, takes a short time to collect the data, the only problem with the data is when its covering
large area the resolution becomes from low to very low; LiDAR technology which produces high
accurate data and is not dependant of time and weather.
The LiDER technology is not new in Kenya just like in other parts of the world. LiDER
technology have been used in other sectors in the country such as food security mapping, flood
mapping, mining Engineering etc it is only in the field of Roads and Infrastructure engineering
that it has not been fully exploited and hence the use of mobile lider scanning.

Page 8
Remote Sensing using LiDAR Duffell, C.G.; Rudrum, D.M. (2005) can provide high speed data
collection in areas with restricted access and/or safety concerns. Particularly, use of MLS on
transportation corridors can minimize roadway delays.

The history of LiDAR began about 50 years ago, and it was primarily used as a tool for scientific
investigation. LIDAR development advanced slowly, hampered by the lack of computing and
positioning technologies.

Prior to LiDAR based mobile mapping, other systems used a nearly identical platform setup but
relied on photogrammetric methods. The first fully functional system GPSVan was created in the
early 1990s by the Center for Mapping at Ohio State University. It utilized GPS, gyro, distance-
measuring instrument (DMI), two CCD cameras, and a voice recorder Burtch, R. (2006).

In the last 15 years progress accelerated dramatically, and LiDAR has emerged as a viable and
economical technology for mapping the earth's surface and features upon it. Spurred on by the
experiences of early adopters, who demonstrated the potential for cost-effective collection of
high accuracy elevation data over large study areas, the market for LiDAR data has grown
exponentially.

The first MLS system was constructed in 2003, which was initially a helicopter based LiDAR
system which had been removed and mounted sideways onto a vehicle. The system was first
used in Afghanistan to survey Highway, which was potentially hostile for helicopter based
scanning Glennie, C. (2009). However, this system proved successful in Afghanistan and
demonstrated the potential value of MLS.

MLS was used by the NC DOT to survey five sections of interstate highway to generate baseline
drawings for design Mabey, S. McKim & Creed (2009). The MLS data met the engineering
specifications and the acquisition was completed in nine days compared to the estimated 50+
days that would have been required using fixed terrestrial laser scanning.

Jacobs [39] provides many examples of how baseline data can be used for further construction
development; these include: slope stability near the roadway, intersection improvement projects,

Page 9
Pavement quality monitoring, pavement volume calculation, roadway milling settings, and pre-
accident condition data. MLS data used for planning purposes the Columbia River Crossing
Project between Oregon and Washington. MLS data were acquired on several arterial roads for
baseline, geometric data for both planning and design.

A LIDAR point cloud allows designers to test various configurations in a virtual world that
recreates the real world in high accuracy. The University of Wisconsin–Madison has utilized
MLS to create a virtual world of the roadways surrounding the campus which is used in their
driving simulator, allowing the simulator’s users to intimately connect the simulated
environment with the real world [41].

MLS systems are capable of providing clearance data for highway overpasses, bridges, traffic
signs, and even roadside high power lines. In many of these instances, the network (absolute)
geo-referencing accuracy of the point cloud is less important than the relative accuracy provided
by the scanner [42]. Olsen et al., [35] provide examples of bridge height clearances over
roadways and waterways for Oregon DOT. These height clearances can be used to determine if a
modeled object can navigate safely through the constricted section.

Vasquez [43] describes a high publicity example of using a MLS point cloud for evaluating
obstructions along the 15 mile route taken by the space shuttle Endeavour to the California
Science Center in Los Angeles, California. Clash detection using a 3D model of the shuttle and
the MLS data indicated over 700 clashes (155 were overhead lines). Because of pre-
identification of these clashes, conflicts were resolved ahead of time, enabling an efficient move
with minimal interruption. The results were visually communicated through 3D visualizations
and 2D cross sections.

Singh [45] discusses the role of laser scanning in machine automation for transportation
applications, and how this use enhances efficiency. Rybka [46] demonstrates an entirely digital
site planning project. Periodic scans with a MLS permit initial design, estimates of percent
completion, project compliance, and as-built at project completion. Rybka [46] also discusses

Page 10
“Design to Dozer”, a demonstration of construction automation hosted by Oregon DOT and the
PPI Group depicting how MLS data can be used to create a DTM for machine control and
construction automation to grade a site without ever having to drive grade stakes. All grading is
done entirely through equipment guided by GPS and a base model created from the 3D point
cloud. This presents an opportunity for cost savings, time savings, and improves site safety
although no-actual job studies or cost comparisons are currently available.

Singh [45] discusses the role of a living survey database through all stages of the infrastructure
life cycle through planning, design, construction, and maintenance. In addition, digital, as-built
records provided by LIDAR can provide significantly more detail than traditional methods [47].
These digital records are particularly effective compared to traditional red lines on paper
drawings.
In addition to providing high accuracy as-built records, MLS can provide quality control on the
construction process. Tang et al. [48] discuss the use of algorithms for determining the flatness
of concrete providing permanently documented results of the flatness defects, and permits users
to remotely access the surface. Kim et al. [49] verify super-elevation slope values, curb design,
and soundproofing wall design by creating cross sections of a roadway at 5 m intervals. The
MLS data can then be compared to the original CAD drawings to ensure construction was
completed within tolerance.

Traffic congestion typically results from human error, and automakers are researching methods
to remove much of the human component from driving. BMW has been developing a system
called Traffic Jam Assistant to take over driving tasks when vehicle speed is lower than 25 mph.
The system relies on GPS and LIDAR along with other components to perform steering, braking,
and acceleration [50].

Chang et al. [56] performed tests to compare the use of static 3D laser scanning, Multiple Laser
Profiler (MLP) and rod and level surveys, and found significant correlation (99%). As MLS
accuracies increase, it may provide detailed surface roughness data, which are important to

Page 11
evaluate new pavement smoothness quality, resulting in significant incentives and disincentives
for contractors.
Olsen and Chin [57] have shown that static TLS data has potential for pavement smoothness
evaluation, which determines significant financial incentives/disincentives for contractors on
highway construction projects. In addition, Kumar [58] has developed an algorithm that
estimates road roughness by evaluating the standard deviation of points to a surface grid across a
roadway.
Potentially, scanner intensity information could be usable to determine the reflectivity of painted
stripes, signs, and more. (However, actual implementation requires continued research and
development to appropriately normalize intensity values). Scanner intensity information can also
be used to highlight damaged sections of concrete or asphalt pavement, which reflects light
differently.
Coifman et al. [51] used mobile LIDAR to evaluate parking utilization along arterial roads at
various times of the day. They propose mounting MLS units on public vehicles such as buses,
which could collect daily datasets along specific routes. They also noted the potential for vehicle
classification and parking duration from the repeat datasets. Comparison of the automated
approach to ground truth showed a small error rate of 1/340 vehicles.

Mobile LIDAR can also be used for maintenance purposes. Many maintenance tasks are similar
to those described in Section 5.6.3, Construction. One key advantage is that mobile LIDAR
could enable a rapid as-built, geospatial record of maintenance that is completed, reducing the
need for future, repeat surveys [45].

The data collected for roadways can be used for several geometric analyses including stopping
sight distances, adequate curve layouts, slope, super-elevation, drainage properties, lane width,
and pavement wear. For instance, Zhang and Frey [52] found that road grade could be reliably
determined (within 5% compared to design drawing data) with airborne LIDAR data. Amadori
[53] found that mobile LIDAR can be an effective tool for cross slope determinations,
particularly when identifying sections that are out of compliance. Several pavement resurfacing

Page 12
vendors have found the data to be effective to reduce change orders and over-run costs for
resurfacing projects.
Herr [54] presents several examples of how MLS data can be used to evaluate pavement
condition including rutting, ride quality, rehabilitation, texture, and automated distress. He
emphasizes that the acquisition of all of these data from a single, integrated point cloud
represents a major paradigm shift for the industry where these data are acquired from a variety of
sources. Tsai and Li [55] document controlled laboratory tests using laser profiling units to scan
pavement at high detail at ambient lighting and low intensity contrast. The system was effective
in detecting cracks automatically; although scanner tilt angle, transverse profile spacing, and
sampling frequency were key variables influencing the detection accuracy.

Manufacturers have improved LiDAR systems from simple laser altimeters to the sophisticated
multiple return sensors seen in commercial use today. The rapid evolution of sensors and the
capability to customize LiDAR data collection for specific applications is the key to this rapid
and widespread adoption.

LiDAR sensors have been equipped on static ground-based platforms, and moving platforms
such as airplanes, vehicles (Figure 2), hence collection of detailed, high accuracy topographical
data of a road network is expedited by having instruments capable of reading GPS/IMU on a
automobile platform, achieving immense extents of GIS-friendly LiDAR point cloud data in
short amount of time.

While terrestrial LiDAR system is competent to see data flanked by buildings and under tree
canopy, which airborne systems, will never be able to capture. Mobile mapping systems usually
collect a full 360-degree FOV at a speed of 30-40 kilometers per hour. The data collected will be
highly precise and can be used to generate convincing 3D data and highly accurate road maps
(Figure 1).

Page 13
Fig. 1a. A 3D data from a MLS mapping system.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Desk Work

This will involve looking at the literature on the works done (publications) by other people
around the globe from both the internet and libraries and reviewing, analyzing and summarizing
them.

3.2 Field Reconnaissance

Page 14
3.3 Field work

During data collection runs, an automobile Trimble MX8 composed of two Riegl VQ-250
scanners, four cameras – one recording the road surface and three pointing forward at an angle of
360-degree FOV – and an Applanix POS LV 520 for positioning purposes are expected to be
used. The runs are to be made forth and back at a speed of 30-40 kilometers or more but not
exceeding speed of 50 to 70 km/h.

The data collected will then be geo-referenced. This will be achieved by monumenting some
ground control points (GCPs) staggered on both sides of the road sections at an interval of
between 50m - 100m and measured using GNSS Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS or Calibrated
Total Station (TS) and either digital or dumpy Level instruments.

Following registration, point cloud data will then be filtered to eliminate unwanted features,
including artificial low points, objects passing in the scanner view, unwanted vegetation, or,
more generally, anything that is generally regarded as not needed by the design engineer.
Filtering is also commonly done to reduce the file size of the deliverable point cloud since the
full dataset can require intense computational power and data storage.

1.3.4. Materials and Equipment

The materials and equipments to be used for the study include: a laser, a scanner, a photo-
detector, a GPS/IMU positioning system and a vehicle.

Page 15
Fig. 2a.

Fig. 2b.

Page 16
There are many Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) mapping systems commonly used today but all of
them almost used systems which consist of five distinct components namely:

(1) The mobile platform;

(2) Positioning hardware (e.g., GNSS, IMU);
(3) 3D laser scanner(s);
(4) Photographic/video recording; and
(5) Computer and data storage.

These five systems assimilate to measure the distance to an object by lighting the target with
throbs of light from the laser instrument and gauging the time it takes for each throb to bounce
back to the sensor. For the reason that light moves at a persistent and known speed, the distance
between the laser instrument and an entity (object) can be measured with a high degree of
accuracy. A briskly firing laser can cover entire scenes in a few strokes, visualizing the
topography and extracting data. A highly capable processing software then transforms raw data
into colorful 3-D point clouds, and the end results are multifaceted, high-resolution maps.

1. A mobile platform: Is usually a rigid platform, precisely calibrated to maintain the

positional differences between the GPS, IMU, scanner(s), and imaging equipment. It
connects all data collection hardware into a single system. It also provides a means to
connect to the vehicle being used in the data collection process.
2. Positioning hardware: This varies significantly from system to system. However, at a
minimum most systems incorporate at least one GPS/GNSS receiver and an IMU. The
GPS/IMU systems work together to continually report the best possible position. In times
of poor satellite coverage, the IMU manages the bulk of the positioning workload.
However, when satellite coverage is ideal, the IMU’s positional information is then
updated from the GPS. In addition to augmenting the GPS in periods of poor satellite
coverage, the IMU must continually fill gaps between subsequent GPS observations.
GPS/IMU data quality is typically the primary factor in gaining the best accuracy for a
LiDAR point cloud.

Page 17
Note: More complex MLS systems will utilize multiple GPS receivers, an IMU, and also a DMI
for improved positioning.
The DMI, a precise odometer, reports the distance traveled to improve GPS/IMU processing.
DMIs provide the exact distance traveled by measuring distance along the ground path, It is
typically mounted to one of the vehicle’s rear wheels.

3. 3D laser scanners: The scanners are well suited for setup on a mobile platform. These
scanners are set to operate in a line scan (or planar) mode, where the scan head stays
fixed and only internal mirror movement takes place. In order to minimize the number of
passes necessary to fully capture data, it is advisable to utilize more than one scanner
with view orientations at different angles. The scanner also records an intensity value,
which is a measure of return signal strength and can be helpful to distinguish objects of
varying reflectivity.
4. Photographic and video recording: This is used to provide more detail than just the
laser scanner alone. This equipment is primary used for coloring of individual scan points
in the point cloud to the representative real-world color. This is done by mapping red,
green, and blue (RGB) values to the geo-referenced point location. This point coloring
can make a highly dense point cloud appear as if it were a photograph.
A visual record provided by this equipment is to assist users in determining abnormalities
in the scan data. This imagery can be used by itself as a video log without the scan data.
5. Computer and Data Storage: Computer helps the Mobile systems to be capable of
processing and storing large quantities of data from many sources. The advancements in
computer processing speed and data storage capabilities have lowered the cost, and
increased the efficiencies of working with LiDAR data. The data includes: the point
cloud, IMU, GPS, DMI, and all photographic and video data which must then all be
integrated with a common, precise time stamp. Even though there are capabilities of
processing of data available in the mobile system itself, much of the processing is still
completed in the office.

Page 18
References:

1. Burtch, R. Mobile Mappling Systems, Unpublished Lecture Notes; 2006. Available

online: http://www.ferris.edu/faculty/burtchr/sure382/lessons.html (accessed on 10 June
2011).

2. Communications, M. Mobile LiDAR captures data for driving simulator. LIDAR News 1
October 2011. Available online: http://www.LIDARnews.com/newsletter/Vol1No18.htm
(accessed on 17 September 2013).

3. Clancy, S. The importance of Applied Control. LIDAR Magazine 2011; Volume 1, pp.
26–30. Available online: http://LIDARnews.com/emag/2011/vol1no2/index.html
(accessed on 17 September 2013).

4. Duffell, C.G.; Rudrum, D.M. Remote Sensing Techniques for Highway Earthworks
Assessment. In Proceedings of GeoFrontiers 2005, Austin, TX, USA, 24–26 January
2005; pp. 1–13.

5. Glennie, C. Reign of point clouds. A kinematic terrestrial LIDAR scanning system.

Inside GNSS 2007, 2, 22–31.

6. Glennie, C. Kinematic terrestrial light-detection and ranging system for scanning. Transp.
Res.Rec. 2009, 2105, 135–141.

7. Glennie, C.; Lichti, D.D. Static calibration and analysis of the velodyne HDL-64E S2 for
high accuracy mobile scanning. Remote Sens. 2010, 2, 1610–1624.

8. Jacobs, G. High definition surveying & 3D laser scanning uses in transportation.

Professional Surveyor Magazine April 2005.

9. Mabey, S. McKim & Creed Deploy TITAN for mobile LIDAR Scanning of Five Major
Sections of North Carolina DOT Highways 2009; Ambercore: Houston, TX, USA, 2009.

10. Olsen, M.J.; Singh, R.; Williams, K.; Chin, A. Transportation Applications Subchapter.
In Manual of Airborne Topographic Lidar; Renslow, M.S., Ed.; ASPRS: Bethesda, MD,
USA, 2012; pp. 331–343.

11. Rybka, R. Down-to-Earth LiDAR. LIDAR News 21 January 2011. Available online:
http://lidarnews.com/dev/richard-rybka/5098-downto-earth-lidar (accessed on 17
September 2013).

12. Singh, R. Engineering Automation, Key Concepts for a 25 Year Time Horizon; ODOT
Report; Oregon Department of Transportation: Salem, OR, USA, 2008.

Page 19
13. Su, Y.Y.; Hashash, Y.M.A.; Liu, L.Y. Integration of construction as-built data via laser
scanning with geotechnical monitoring of urban excavation. J. Constr. Eng. Manag.
2006, 132, 1234–1241.

14. Vasquez, R. Endeavour moves through the cloud. LIDAR News 2 November 2012.
Available online: http://www.lidarnews.com/content/view/9298/199/ (accessed on 17
September 2013).

Page 20