Urban Places – term 1 2024

Key:
Stats
Syllabus
Terms
Case study.

Students learn about:

world cities:
- the nature, character and spatial distribution of world cities
- the role of world cities as powerful centres of economic and cultural authority
- the operation of global networks
- the relationships of dominance and dependence between world cities and other urban centres
and the changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.

Background information definitions

Urbanisation – refers to the population shift from rural to urban area, the corresponding decrease in the
proportion of people living rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change.
Urban growth – is an increase in the absolute size of an urban population.
- they often occur together.
The twenty first century has been referred to as the first urban or metropolitan century.
- For the first time majority of the world population lives in what can be loosely classifies as urban
areas.
o 2014, an estimated 54% (3.8 billion people) lived in cities.
o cities only occupy 0.5% of the worlds land, accounting for 70% of economic activity, 60% of
energy consumption.
o By 2050 a predicted 66% of people will live in the city.

Urban growth is thought to occur because of the real perceived benefits of the clustering of human activity
(eco and social) in areas of proximity. However, the speed and scale of urbanisation pose significant
challenges: cities are increasingly marked by social differentiation, poverty, conflict and environmental
degradation.
Globalisation – is a process that results from the increasing economic and financial integration of
economies around the world.

WORLD CITIES

the nature, character and spatial distribution of world cities

World city (global city) – a large city that has importance to the operation of the global systems of finance,
trade, politics, communications, aid, tourisms and entertainment.

The nature of world cities

World cities have outstripped their national urban network and become part of an international global
system.
- They exert their economic authority as the command-and-control centres in the borderless domain
of the new global economy
Their banks and markets finance the global economy, and their specialised, knowledge-intensive firms
deliver services essential to its operation.
- 1 billion people live in more than 60 global cities.
- Global cities drive the global economy – economic powerhouses.
o Head offices, BS’s, legal & consulting, exchange banks and global corporations.
 - Drive connectivity – diffusion of idea, goods, info
o Major airports solid transit infostructure making them accessible.
- Unlock knowledge through top educational institutions consolidates, think tanks, international
conferences that drive political engagement.
- They are cultural capitals
- Because of trade liberalisation, BS ideas, and people flow freely.

Notes from reading 5/2/2024.

- World city formation has largely proceeded in 3 world regions: north America, western Europe and
pacific Asia.
- Apart from Johannesburg none of the World cities are located in Africa – reflected marginalisation
withing the world economy as the result of the continents poorly developed formal economy.
- Many of the large industrial TNC’s that account for nearly 70% of international trade are
headquartered in these cities.
- The massive expansion of the global financial industry has increased the dominance of these cities.
o Main 4 cities include London, Paris, Tokyo and New York.
Spatial distribution
World cities are not evenly spread out across the glove. There is a regional concentration which is the effect
of uneven globalisation.
- Concentration of the cities occur in North America, Western Europe and Pacific Asia.
o Johannesburg – alpha city – is the only world city located in Africa.
- A majority are located on waterways and act as trading hubs.
Character of world cities
- World leading infrastructure – transport, communication, sport, large container ports etc.
- High risk skyscrapers – often designed by global architects.
- Iconic green space and recreational facilities – often centrally located for access.
- Declining manufacturing centres in the CBD – adaptive reuse and renewal of downtown core.
- Increasing high rise inner-city residential developments and suburban sprawl.
- Challenges – air pollution, traffic congestion, cost of loving pressures, terrorism, climate change.

The role of world cities as powerful centres of economic and cultural authority
Cultural authority: the ability of world cities to generate. Communicate and disseminate ideas and values.
Diffuse cultural trends and information. Referred to as the control centres of the cultural world.
Economic authority: world cities are the command-and-control centres for organising the global economy.
They participate and organise world headquarters, banks, BSs etc.
For example:
- TNCs account for 70% of all world trade, 50% of these are located in world cities.
- 38 of the top TNCs are located in only the top 3 world cities (NY, LON, TOK)

The global 500 (biggest companies by revenue) generated 27.6 trillion dollars in revenues and 1.5 trillion
dollars in profits. These companies employ 67 million people globally and are represented with the world
cities of 33 countries.
- Asian based companies increased rapidly from 116 in 2001 to 188 in 2012.
o Beijing hosts 30 of the global 500 company headquarters.

16 stock exchanges valued over 1 trillion dollars are all housed in world cities.
- The biggest being the NY stock exchange in New York.

Shanghai – is the world’s busiest port for trade, with 37.1 million shipping containers passing through the
port. The top 10 busiest ports are all found in Asia = hub for global trade.
Cultural Authority – seven cities have hosted the Olympic games more than once. London is the only city
hosting 3 times, Paris becoming the next city to in 2024. – world city, diffusion of culture.
- Universities – Boston is one of the world’s most prominent academic hubs and is the location of 35
of universities. There 152000 students in Boston’s institutions. EG Harvard and MIT.

Economic authority – NY, HQ of the UN.

- Since 1952, NY has been the host of the United Nations headquarters. This allows for decision
making authority and hosting authority.
- WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
- World bank, Washington DC, USA.
- World tourism organisation, Madrid, Spain
⬆️all are world cities.

Operation of global networks

The nature of global networks

- City networks can identify physical connections to other places, such as railways, canals, scheduled
flights, or telecommunication networks.
- City networks also exist in immaterial connections, such as trade, global finance, markets, migration,
cultural links, shared social spaces or shared histories. There are also networks of religious nature,
in particular through pilgrimage.
- The city itself is then regarded as the node where different networks intersect.
- Nodes and hubs operate to generate, transfer, and disseminate:
o People – flows of tourism, migration and transitional professionals.
o Goods – trade, imports, exports, crucial links in global commodity chains.
o Ideas – cultural authority, start-up creative industries, education.
o Information – media/news, decisions from hq’s, press and freedom of speech.
o Finance – flows of capital, trades on stock exchanges, HQs of APS and TNCs.
- This connectivity is facilitated through space shrinking technology – air transport, containerisation,
fibre optic networks, computers and smartphones, satellite networks – and the process of
globalisation through the growth of the global economy.

Degree of connectivity
Command and control centres within the global network are highly connected due to:
- Physical geography and heritage of dominance – oldest trading cities that exist on deep water
harbours or major river systems are strategically located to service the 24-hour global economy
become the engines of global trade – e.g. London and Hong Kong have a long trading heritage and
have maintained their dominate positions are regional nodes within the global network.
- Economic dominance (alpha to alpha, beta to beta). Thickness of flows highest between alpha cities
within the circuit.
- Core – centre of decision making – and periphery status. Core cities coordinate, manage and service
increasingly complex and specialised global economic activities – periphery cities.
- Increasingly digitised products and headquarter functions. Leaders in global tech industries that
facilitate the functioning of the global economy.
- Degree of Hard to soft infrastructure for communication
o Hard – physical infrastructure such as airport density
o Soft – human capital such as industry leaders and think tanks.

Strong connectivity – city dyads

City dyad - Are two cities that are highly connected in the global network.
  NY & London a prominent city dyad. NY and LON are viewed through this lens as twin cities – the
financial and cultural capitals of the Anglo-American world. There is a community of high earning
professionals who commute between these cities and a high degree of connectivity between
advanced producer services – accounting, advertising, financial services, law and management
consultancy.

Dyad accountancy advertising Financial law Management

services consultancy
London – NY 344 296 547 326 218
Hong Kong – 336 212 540 186 116
London

Alpha ++ Alpha + Alpha Alpha - Beta + Beta Beta -

London Tokyo Sydney Boston Dallas Perth Edinburgh
New York Paris Chicago Stockholm Miami Rio Geneva

Example of connectivity –
Fibre optic cables – laid across the ocean floors of the world illustrate the global connectivity of world
cities. The North-Atlantic Fibre optic corridor has the greatest concentration of cables anywhere on earth;
of the worlds 188 submarine cables, 18 of those directly link NY to LON. Information can be sent between
these two cities with in 60 milliseconds (stock market). Over 95% of online data is sent between the two
cities via these cable and as such they serve as vital infostructure to maintain the productivity of the world’s
largest economic centres.
- Connect cites across the ocean.
- These cables underpin the entire global internet and our modern information age.
- 1.5 million km of cables across the world.
People – London – busiest airport system by passenger numbers.
 Total passengers, 153 million per year.
New York – total passengers, 126 million per year.
Interdependence of global stock exchanges –
The global financial system is highly complex, with cross-border interconnections and interdependencies.
- In this highly interconnected environment, local financial shocks and events can easily be amplified
and turned into global events.
- The NYSE and NASDAQ (NY), alongside other global markets, such as the Frankfurt SE, are in the
core group of global stock markets as a result of their dominant materials, and financial sectors.
- Wall street (NY) has such a significant impact on the global economy because it is the trading hub of
the biggest financial markets in the world’s richest nations.
- Spill over of economic shocks to other world cities occurs because foreign banks are active
participates in the US economy. US banks also have substantial operations in other cities globally.
24-hour economy – physical geography helping connectivity.
The strategic location of dominate world cities across all time zones permits the operation of a 24hour
economy.
- When stock exchanges, business activity and financial services close in Tokyo, they are already open
in London, which is then followed by NY, then SYD and so the global system of exchange is always
operational.

The relationships of dominace and dependence between world cities and other urban centres and the
changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.
Dominance – refers to the amount of control some urban places exert over other urban places and the
spatial extent (scale) of that control.
- World cities have more control over all other urban places and over a greater area.
 - They have a long history of dominance, gained through exploration and trade, colonisation, and
neo-colonisation and through globalisation, based on industry and services.
Dependence – refers to the reliance of national cities and less powerful world cities on dominate global
cities for their supply of people, goods, services, ideas, and information.
- Dependant cities do not have the ability to meet their own needs as a result of a smaller number of
advanced producer services, cultural institution of regional or national significance and less
sophisticated transport and communication infrastructure.
Hierarchy of world cities – patterns of dom and dep.
The globalisation and world cities research networks,
has developed a classification system that measures
the hierarchy of world cities based on their network of
advanced producer services:
o Law
o Banking/finance
o Advertising
o Accounting companies
According to this classification, there are 55 world
cities globally:
- 10 alphas.
- 10 betas.
- 35 gamma.
The global hierarchy of world cities is essentially a function hierarchy raging from the world cities down to
national, regional, and local scales.

Global centres National metropolis Regional centres

Theatres of world accumulation. Tactical decision making. Theatre Daily decisions, local
Technological dominance. of national accumulation accumulation, limited modern
Financial dominance in national dominance of the production. Centres of
production distribution. Cultural production and distribution of distribution. Recipients/
influence. Strategic decision g/s. cultural dominance, political transmitters of cultural patterns.
making. control Local political influence.

The hierarchy of world cities indicates that there is a level of dominance emulating form New York, London,
Tokyo and Paris over other world cities. They have a disproportionate concentration of top-level
headquarters of the financial, industrial commercial and producer service sectors.
- The expansion of the global financial industry over the last 20 years has greatly increased their
global significance as they have become the command-and-control centres of the global system of
exchange.
 Along with Australia, in the US – NYC -> Newark -> Clinton -> Union.
Why are some world cities so dominate? – economic & cultural authority.
Powerful and dominate world cities – London, paris, NYC, dominate on a global scale because of the
concentration of control they have over a range of human activities. They are the most important centres
of corporate decision making and the creation of investment capital.
- They attract human capital and expertise that generate new ideas and technologies. They create
fashion and culture – infrastructure and flows – and communications – hard and soft infrastructure.
Some of this control is delegated to large cities lower down the hierarchy where branches and
regional headquarters are located.

San Francisco – dominance in innovation start-ups and venture capital.

Innovation puts SF ahead, driven by high growth companies in Silicon Valley, SF continues to excel in
innovation as measured by patent activity.
- SF is the world’s biggest innovation hub, with thriving start-ups and enterprise ideas.
 o E.g. uber, twitter, air BNB.
The US – NY with a group of world cities that are dependent on it, for financial transactions. Major world
cities include Chicago, Boston, and Miami. Clustered around these world cities are the nationally significant
urban centres that have dependent relationships with their nearby world cities.
The UK – London acts as a centre of dependence for other major cities across the nation especially for
financial transactions. Cities such as Birmingham, Newcastle rely on LON for a variety of needs and allow
them to subsequently be linked in the global network.
Primate cities – is a major city that works as the financial political and population centre of a country and is
not rivalled in any of these aspects by any other city in that country.
- A primate city must be twice as populous as the second largest city in the country.
- EXAMPLE – London and Paris.
The presence of a primate city in a country usually indicated an imbalance in
development – usually a progressive core, and a lagging periphery, on which the
primate city depends for labour and other resources.
Core and periphery urban places – core cities tend to have characteristics including
high foreign direct investment, a range of advanced producer services, high
employment and wages, high net migration, a wide variety of entertainment and a
large racial mix and cultural diversity.

Cultural
Airports Tourism Transport

Tokyo Two airports: Narita and 25 million tourists annually. Tokyo has the most extensive urban
(Alpha) Haneda. 2020 Olympic games railway network and the most used in
Narita Airport had 15.42 The Olympic Games Tokyo reached the world with 40 million passengers
million terminal a global broadcast audience of in the metro area daily.
passengers annually . more than three billion people. 323 Shinkansen’s daily.
Haneda has 80 million Tokyo Skytree - 4.27 million visitors
terminal passengers annually
annually, third-busiest in Shibuya crossing has between two
all of Asia. and three million commuters daily
Osaka Osaka international airport Universal Studios Japan is in Osaka Osaka Loop Line
(Beta) – 30th busiest in Asia, third and is one of the most visited Osaka metro operates on 130km an
busiest in Japan theme parks in the world. In 2019, serves 123 stations.
One domestic airport it had 14.5 million visitors making it 32 daily depatures from Osaka to
the fifth most visited theme park in Tokyo
the world.
Nagoya Two airports, Chubu Toyota museum of industry and Nagoya and surrounds are
(Gamma) Centrair international technology, Nagoya Castle served by multiple railway
airports, Nagoya Airport (cultural), Osu Shopping street – companies and six subway
home to important cultural lines.
properties - old shops etc. 34 bullet train departures per day
 Legoland Japan
Resort.

Economic
 GDP annually TNCs HQ Stock exchange Ports and Trade

Toyko Ranks first globally in Approximately 3.49 million The Tokyo Stock Tokyo has six major ports.
(Alpha) terms of GDP at USD corporations were Exchange (TSE) is the The Port of Tokyo handled 2.36
$1.6 trillion operating in Japan. worlds thirst-largest million TEU of container
exchange with total imports, surpassing all other
Japan has 4 TNCs market capitalisation major ports in Japan.
headquartered. of $6.8 trillion.

Toyota - $219.2 billion

99% of business
establishments in Tokyo
are small and medium
businesses. These
companies boast
sophisticated technology
and superior
productivity.
Osaka $362 billion GDP Osaka Exchange, Inc. Used to be Japan’s capital and
Revenue (2023) most popular port due to its
(Beta) $993.6M. historical importance to the
Japanese rice trade;

“the Venice of Japan” for the

diverse waterways, such as
canals and locks, that crisscross
the city;

Osaka – not Tokyo – is

pioneering the shift to a more
open and diverse global
economy.

Roughly 300 startups in the past

3 years

$42 million invested in Osaka

start-ups and innovation
Nagoya $363 billion GDP (due AirAsia Japan based in Nagoya Stock In 2022 total cargo throughput
Exchange's revenue is at the port of Nagoya was 163.6
(Gamma) to it being the fourth- Nagoya $337 Million
largest city in Japan, Central japan railway million tons
and an important city company In 2021 it was 178 million
for national and Toyota tsusho
international trade.) Sonic Powered

Dominance and dependence in Australia.

- Sydney as a major world city has 27 head office locations for Australia’s 50 largest corporations.
Melbourne comprises 16 of these, while the others have less than 3.
 - Sydney is the principle financial centre as countries like Japan prefer to locate trading, marketing,
and financial companies there. Although Melbourne dominates in the areas of manufacturing and
mining, Sydney is the dominate link to the global economy as it represents a more recent period of
capital accumulation associated with economic globalisation, especially in the financial sector.
o Sydney offers a gateway into the world economy. Financial specialiscity fintech operations
headquartered in Sydney. 61 billion dollars to national economy.
- Sydney and Melbourne make up more than 50% of the national economy.
- Over 80% of Australia’s local and foreign owned banks are headquartered in Sydney.
The national dominance of Sydney and Australia’s big two urban centres.
- The most recent population estimates by the BOS showed 9.3 million people live in Sydney and
Melbourne, or four in every 10 Australians. It is very uncommon for just two cities to account for
such a larger portion of the population. – concentration of human capital
Dependence – less powerful urban centres increasingly depend upon the influence of the control by more
powerful urban centres for:
- Their material wellbeing
- The g/s they need.
- Investment in employment opportunities and infrastructure
- Information
- Culture
- Income.

the changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.
Nature of the regional centres
Regional centres are located in coastal and inland settings. They provide:
- Goods, services, and employment to people from surrounding settlements
- Significant infrastructure for tourism, tertiary education, medical facilities, entertainment, and
industries.
They typically have a population of 50,000 to 100,000.
Examples:
- Bathurst 1000, host of the race
- Tamworth, host of the country music festival
- UNSW in Wagga, supporting surrounding areas.

Nature of small towns – most dependant on hierarchy.

71% of Australians live in major cities, however 1 in 10 live in a small town, with a population of less than
10,000 people – Australia-wide there are just over 1700 small towns.
- The number of Australians living in small towns has increased slightly from 2.2 million people in
2011 up to 2.3 million people in 2016. However, the proportion has decreased since 2011 from
10.4% to 9.7%.
- More people over 50 that love in small towns than major cities.
The closer to a major city the more dominant.
The mechanisation of the agricultural industry – losing population due to technology.
Growth in the central west –
- By 2031, Bathurst’s population will reach population of over 50,000 people, over taking dubbo, with
an estimated of population of 47,000 and orange 46,000.
o The main source of this is the net gain in internal migration of regional areas from Sydney
during COVID. The closer to Sydney the more migration.
Reasons for the changing role of the regional centre.
- With globalisation the role of the regional centre has changed, and they are increasingly dominating
‘regions’ of the rural interior.
- Regional centres have greater linkages with world cities (Sydney) through trade and decision
making. Perform a number of riles and have very diversified economic activities. They play a very
 important part with in the local economy but have also linked with national processes and markets
to foster growth.
- They have diversified their economic base, where a greater number of functions are being
performed. This has resulted in:
 Increased employment opportunities
 Increased g/s offered to people in the regional centre and surrounding area.
- Regional centres are playing role in disseminating ideas, info, money and finance to people in rural
areas due to their higher levels of connectivity.
Dubbo – experienced a population increase of 56% in the last 20 years. All the municipalities bordering
Dubbo to the north, west and south – e.g. Wellington, have experienced population loss over the same
period. The diversified economic activities that exist in these regional centres provide employment
opportunities.
- Sponge cities absorb G/S capital, banks relocated to regional centres.

Small town decline

Push Pull (towards regional centres)
Agricultural mechanisation Globalisation and space-shrinking technologies.
Due to technological advances, there has been a Faster travel times (to and from regional centres)
shift away from labour intensive farming in favour and better long-distance communication.
of capital-intensive farming. Reduced need for farm - Easier and faster to get to.
hands and increase unemployment from
agricultural of farmers.
Increasing natural hazards Access to goods and services
droughts, flood and bushfires have increased in Private and public investment in regional centres
intensity and frequency due to climate change, has improved access to health, education and retail
which has caused economic impacts to agricultural facilities.
enterprises. Many farmers have moved for more
stability to regional centres.
- Economy is not diverse, only primary
industries.
A lack of access to diverse g/s Affordable housing and reduced cost of living
Small towns have a limited range of retail stores More younger families moving form expensive
and service providers to support wants and needs cities to regional centres.
of local communities. Banks and government
services have closed down to consolidate and
restructure in regional centres.
Small towns have an ageing population. Access to employment in a diversified economy
The town dies out with the population. Young In higher contrast to small towns, regional centres
people find the lack of lifestyle options and have a higher and more diverse number of
education options a reason to internally migrate to employment options in a range of sectors.
large regional centres. Older remain in small downs
with limited lack of staff in nursing homes and no
local doctors or dentists to service health needs.
EXAMPLE Government incentives
Dalgety – lost post office, closed primary school, Offers grants to doctors, teachers to relocate to a
services absorbed by Cooma – regional centre. regional area with monetary incentives. They get
doesn’t have the resources to sustain local fast tracked to larger roles.
communities.
Bombala – losing GP clinic, age care facility closed.
Jindabyne – 400 million to expand growing
 regional centre. EXAMPLE
Depopulation in small towns, their viability Tamworth regional centre – population growth of
becomes eroded because of the tranny of distance. 2% in 2023. Blandford, small town, closed primary
school.

MEGA CITIES

Students to learn about

Mega cities:
- the nature, character, and spatial distribution of mega cities in the developing world
- the challenges of living in mega cities such as housing, traffic infrastructure, water and power
supplies, sanitation services employment and tiger social and health issues.
- The responses to these challenges such as self-help projects, community self-government,
cooperation from NGOs, urban protest and the operations of informal economies.

The nature, character, and spatial distribution of mega cities in the developing world
Nature - Rapid growth has imposed great pressure on the infrastructure and resources pf
cities, leading to social disintegration and horrific urban poverty.
- Provide jobs, better health care and educational purposes for internal
immigrants.
- Urban poor live in squalor and city authorities struggle to cope with the disposal
of waste and the supply of clean water.
- Make a major contribution to environmental degradation.
- London – command centre of the global economy – the largest cities are no
longer the most important cities in the global economy.
- Mega cities are experiencing overurbanisation, there are more urban residents of
than the economies of the cities can support. This is due to rural-urban
migration.
-
Character - Defined by having a population that exceeds 10 million people.
- Perform national or international functions. High order services – government,
banking, insurance and finance – are important components of economic
structures.
- Mega cities have large informal sectors, vending and hawking of services. Lagos
(Nigeria) where this accounts for approximately 69% of total employment. In
Dhaka, 65% of employment is based in the informal sector, with tricycle rickshaws
being the largest single source of employment.
- Also major manufacturing centres. Mumbai, Kolkata and Seoul all have
manufacturing employment within 30%-40%.
- They house labour intensive manufacturing processes of TNC’s.
Spatial 2015- 33 mega cities, with 27 being in the developing world.
distribution 1950 – only London and New York were mega cities, by 2000 there were 25 with 19 in the
developing world

Nature
- Megacities are large urban agglomerations with a population of 10 million or more inhabitants.
o They are some of the fastest growing urban places with annual growth rates of up to 6.5%
annually – Karachi – due to high natural and internal migrating.
 - They often act as national (disproportionate control, regional significance) dominate primate cities.
E.g. Jakarta, Manilla. Mexico City, Bangkok – 2x bigger than other cities in the region.
- Developing world megacities are commonly ex-colonial hubs whose ageing infrastructure was
developing und European rule.

2020 – 34 megacities
- Shanghai 27 millions
- Sao Paulo 22 million – sprawling – eroding forest, urban sprawl = forest degradation.
- Mexico City 22 million – growing industry.

Facts and stats

- By 2050, just over two thirds of humans will be urban dwellers – future growth.
- Cities are engines of creativity and innovation, and most urban dwellers experience higher
standards of living than those rural areas – pull factor – higher standard of living – bright lights
syndrome.
- Cities cover only 2% of the worlds land surface, but activities within their boundary’s consumer
more than three quarters of the worlds resources – resource intense location = waste.
- One in three urban residents live in a slum household.
- 8 of 10 of the world’s most populous cities are currently in Asia – cluster but future shits.

The top 20 megacities are all in the developing world.

Why is this growth occurring?

- Natural increase – excess births over deaths in a city.
- Migration – internal rural -> urban. When the number of in-migrants exceeds the number og out-
migrants. Migrants are often younger.
- Reclassification – absorbing countryside, reclassified into megacities. Incorporating neighbouring
settlements and their populations, which were formerly classified as rural. Absorption

Character
Megacities are characterised by economic, social, political and environment problems including:
- Inadequate housing, informal economic activity, poor sanitation, a lack of reliable power, unsafe
water high crime, political instability and environmental degradation.
Megacities are sites of ageing infrastructure, slum dwellings, high rise residential apartments and air and
physical pollution.
- MC of the developing world are the horsepower of the global economy, contributing 15% of global
GDP per annum, primarily through their informal industrial sector. They operate as dependent
urban places with their manufacturing industries rely on the decision making of TNC in world cities
of developed nations.
Megacities are characterised by chaotic, unplanned urban development, which impedes the
development and wellbeing of the population due to the lac of access to formal goods and services.
Megacities are characterised by high density, sprawling suburbs and slums.
- Megacities have the largest urban footprint of all urban places; typically occupying areas in excess of
1000 square kilometres.
- Megacities in developing countries ten to have higher density housing.

Spatial distribution
Megacities are primary in LEDC countries, with 34 out of 42 located in counties with developing and
emerging economies (due to high rates of migration and natural increase).
- Many occur in China (8) and India (6)
- Megacities in the developing world have unsustainable average annual growth rates of 2/3%
 - Globally, the population megacities contain has grown to more than ½ a billion and these
agglomerations now account for 13 percent of the world’s urban dwellers. 8% of the worlds
population now live in a megacity.
o Delhi is the most populous megacities in the developing world (29 million)

The challenges of living in mega cities such as housing, traffic infrastructure, water and power supplies,
sanitation services employment and tiger social and health issues.

Quantifying challenges – Mercers Quality of life index.

- A composite index that evaluates local living conditions in cities based on quantitive and qualitive
coal, economonc and environmental data.
1. Political and social environment – law enforcement, crime
2. Economic environment - bank services
3. Socio-cultural encironment – media availability and censorship.
4. Medical and health considerations – medical supplies and services, infectious diseases.
5. Schools and education
6. Public servies and transportation
7. Recreation
8. Consumer goods
9. Housing
10. Natural environment
The top 10 cities are all world cities, the first being Vienna Austria. The lowest ranked cities are all
megacities in the developing world, the lowest being Lagos Nigeria. This quantifies the challenges.

Why do megacities experience challenges?

- Explosive population growth.
- A concentration of the poor and jobless.
- Massive infrastructure deficits in the delivery of telecommunications services, the availability of
transportation, and the presence of congestion.
- Pressures on land and housing.
- Environmental concerns, such as contaminated water, air pollution, unchecked week growth due to
the destruction of original vegetation and overdrawn aquifers.
- Disease, high death rates, drug resistant strains of infection, and lethal environmental conditions.
- Economic dependence on federal or state governments
- Capital scarcity – informal economy.

Lagos and Karachi have a growth rate of 5-6%, the sustainable growth rate is 1% per year.

Overurbanisation – occurs in a city when it is unable to contain its populace in infrastructure. It means that
the process of urbanisation is not concurrent with either industrialisation of modernisation.
- The process is commonly a result of a stronger rural push rather than scope offered for employment
from urban pull factor.
Stronger urban pull, rural push = overurbanisation.
Jakarta – home to 10 million people at core and 30 million when including surroundings.
- City sinking due the usage of ground water – moving to Borneo – orangutangs – government
response to the city sinking.
o 10 com per year – submerged by 2050.
Problems for the city include traffic causing air pollution. The WHO says the air pollution index for healthy
air is 15 however Jakarta is 65.
- Half of the city does not have access to electricity or access to piped water.

Challenge #1 - HOUSING
 Challenge Examples Responses Response Examples
housing - Dharavi slums - Slum demolition. - slum demolition
(Mumbai) - Slum upgrading Lagos lagoon.
- Favellas (RDJ) and rehousing. - Favella-Bairro
- City of the Dead - Site and service slum upgrading.
and the Garbage schemes - Baan Mankong
city (Cairo) - Community self- slum
help. development
different cities (signpost terms) - Site and service
global scale challenges (Karachi)

Overcrowding and housing

Overcrowding can be defined as too many people occupying too little space and competing for too few
services and jobs. Overcrowding leads to shanty settlements – shanties are makeshift dwellings erected
without official permission, usually of makeshift materials such as cardboard.
- Shanties have no building standard, no sanitation and often lack basic services such as water and
sewerage – results in health problems and disease often spread through shanty town rapidly.
- People who live in shanties are squatters – no legal rights to land.
o Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, over 5 million of the cities 10 million people are squatters.
o ½ of population in Mumbai also live in shanty towns.
o 2030, 1 in 4 people of world population will live in slums/shanties.
o 90-100% in DRC live in a slum.

There are more than 200,000 slums globally, the number of people living the five biggest slums in the world
amounts to 5.7 million however, in the developing world 900 million people live in slums.
- The five great metropolises of south Asia – Karachi, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Dhaka alone contain
about 15000 distinct slum communities whose total population exceed 20 million people.

World’s largest single slum – Orangi town in Karachi Pakistan with a population of 2.4 million. Covers 57km2
and has a population density of 48000 per km2.
- Challenges: 8-10 people share a two-bedroom household
- Lack of services – sanitation, sewerage – spread of harmful diseases.
- Water quality is the culprit of 40 percent of deaths in Orangi town and a prominent cause of child
mortality with 60% dying from diarrheal diseases.

Dharavi, Mumbai.
Is one of Asia’s largest slums covers just 2.1km2 and has a population of 1mil.
- The most densely populated area in the world.
- Residents suffer from poor access to clean water, toilets, and formal employment,
- Dharavi has an active informal economy in which numerous household enterprises employ many of
the slum residents – leather, textiles, and pottery. Annual turnover estimated at 1mil/year.

City of the dead – 500000 inhabitants – forced to live there, place of 7th century Egyptians. heavily
populated by children.
Garbage city – home to 60000 informal garbage collectors (door to door service). 90% of rubbish is
recycled, 4x the percentage of western recycling companies produce.

Challenges and responses: Favelas in Rio.

Rocinha is the largest Favela in Brazil, home to between 60000 to 150000 people. Often offers better living
standards than squatter camps as they have improved over time. In Rio, 1.2mil people live in a favela for
less than $2 a day.
- ¼ of Rio residents live favelas
- Informal housing -> drug gangs/peaceful community, built with no community guide.
- Fuelled by migration, slavery, people seeking work.
- Without formal government presence, they created their own association coordinating public
projects and resources.
- Death, 1 in 23 are arrested – police corruption and violence. 1 in 37000 in USA.

Responses to challenges.
1. Slum demolition.
2. Slum upgrading.
3. Slum rehousing.
4. Site and service schemes

Slum demolition in Rio and Lagos.

Forced eviction are the permanent or temporary removal against the will of individuals, families and/or
communities from the home and the land in which they occupy, without the provision of, and access to
appropriate forms of legal or other protection.
- Slum clearance, slum eviction or slum removal is an urban renewal strategy used to transform low-
income settlements with poor reputation not into another type of development.
- Frequently these programs were paired with public housing or other assistance programs for the
displaced communities.
- During major events – Rio Olympics, governments forcefully cleared low income housing areas,
reducing the visibility of the hosts city’s apparent poverty.
- Slum clearance also occurs as an attempt to reduce crime, as a poverty reduction strategy and to
free up valuable real estate (Lagos Lagoon)
Slum demolition – Oto Gbame
- In 2017, Lagos state government demolished the informal waterfront settlement, which consisted of
30000 squatters with 15 losing their life – meaning there was no warning.
o 40 illegal waterfronts settlements.
- One-fifth of the city’s 23 million residents are either living in or at risk or poverty.
Impacts of slum demolition
- Homelessness
- Impacts on children’s access to education – exacerbates poverty cycle.
- Impact on livelihoods

The favela-Bairro project – slum upgrading (RIO)

- In-situ and incremental up-gradation (doing slowly over a long period of time) in existing slum
communities living in congested communities with poor sanitation and temporary, insecure housing
structures is a developmental priority.
The Favela project is a favela upgrading project that occurred between 1990 and 2000 in Brazil, Rio.
- It was a partnership between the Brazilian government and the inter-American development bank,
which funded 180 million in to the project.
o The plan was to develop slums infrastructure and to integrate them into the formal city.
- To achieve this goal the project primarily of cued ion basic infrastructure – water, sewerage,
drainage systems, waste collection and opening/paving roads and walkways.
Evaluating the success – by the end of the project, it helped 523000 residents in 73 different communities.
 - Social benefits – increase the standard of living, improved literacy rates, improved average
household income, increase property prices, decrease in gang related violence and decrease in
morbidity and mortality rates. – community centred development.
- Economic security is enhanced by providing tenure security and ownership housing to participating
community members – formal economy.

Baan Mankong – Bangkok – slum development

Was a partnership between communities, municipalities, the private sector and NGOs from 2003-2010.
- Conditions in the slums of Bangkok improved by giving residents control over renovations and
planning. Through the program slum dwellers were given low-interest loans and long term leases of
they could form community planning organisations and come up with sustainable plan for
redevelopment.
- As a result – the percentage of the urban population living in durable buildings rose nu nearly 20,
even as migration to cities rapidly increased.
- The share of population living in durable housing increased from 66% to 84%. And poverty
decreased from 39 to 9 per cent. 1990 – 2010.
Use of microfinance – small loans for businesses, service specific and mostly given to women.

Evaluating the success of slum demolition and rehousing

- Rehousing slum dwellers by governments usually occurs in high rise apartments in outer suburbs or
new satellite towns that are connected to water, electricity and sewage.
- Better living conditions, educational outcomes and health results. However, increased commute
times and traffic congestion results as residents attempt to get to work in the CBD but social
consequences and is also negative consequences of relocation.

Site and service schemes

Informal builders provide the bulk of affordable housing and define large areas of our city. A more formal
incremental process has been adopted by governments, intergovernmental agencies and organisation are
known as ‘Site and Service’ programs, focusing on housing and land development with the provision of
services. –
- Are the provision of plots of land , either on ownership or land lease tenure along with a bare
minimum of essential infrastructure need for habitation.
- The key component of a housing scheme are the plot of land and infrastructure – roads, water etc.
- Green field development on undeveloped land.

positives negatives
- residents are able to phase construction of - The location of schemes is usually on the
their property over a length of time in order periphery, as a result of cheaper and
for the owner to improve their dwelling available land meaning it is difficult for
according to their financial capacity. residents to access employment and health
- Site and service plots are heavily subsidies services.
by the government and available to low- - Urban sprawl exacerbates pressure on
income applicants. transport infrastructure and increase
o Karachi, Pakistan, have been sold for environmental degradation.
Rs1 instead of Rs100000 for similar - The scheme also relies on construction
sites on traditionally sold blocks. skills or the financial capacity to afford to
- Neighbours social sector facilities like pay for construction costs from outsourcing
health, transport and education have been the building of housing, which may result in
largely provided by NGO’s. less durable housing.
- It is cheaper for government.
Community self-help – Mahilla Milan (Mumbai)
- Top down
- Residents become shareholders in community organisations.
- Over 1 million members – work with SPARC to form an alliance.
- A federation of female landless pavement dwellers works with issues such as housing, sanitation,
and grassroots lending schemes. Aims to give women equal recognition for improvement of their
communities.
- By 2001, there were 25000 households in the scheme and 5000 borrowers.

Challenge #2 – EMPLOYMENT

Challenge Example Response Response examples

Employment - Unemployment - Informal economy - Dharavi, Mumbai
- Underemployment - Microfinance - ILO
- Gender - Intergovernmenta - Grameen bank,
l bodies Dhaka.

The nature of employment and the informal economy in Megacities

Urban labour markets are incapable of absorbing the ever-expanding number of job seekers, resulting in
high levels of persons unemployed or underemployed. Without regular income urban adults in the
developing world cannot provide basic needs for themselves and their families
 This results in absolute poverty – living on under $1 USD a day.
- As there are limited positions available in the for economy (taxpayers), many urban dwellers resort
to working in the informal sector which palsy an important role in megacities.
Underemployment and unemployment
- Many of these young people migrated into the city from rural area in search of work – although
they lack skills that would equip them for many urban jobs. Unemployment rates are up to 30-40%
in many megacities.
as a response many young people create their own work – usually on the streets – informal economy.
- The underemployment are people who are able to obtain jobs which are below their qualifications.
- The informal sector – are activities that are outside the legal and tax structures of a country.
Underemployment – many workers are trapped in low-paid, informal jobs which fail to develop and fully
utilise their sills and capacities.
- E.g. the youth and people from migrant backgrounds, this has reinforced social disparities in income
and access to productive and rewarding jobs which causing much hardship for individuals and
families, undermining potential growth of developing and emerging economies.
Unemployment – rapid population growth, disequilibrium in the migration process, changes in megacity
competitiveness, constraints on efficient job search, and skill deficiencies.
- In general, open unemployment rates in developing countries are misleadingly low because such a
high proportion of the labour market is unstructured.
- 1/5 of Egypt’s urban labour force is unemployed, with 1/5 working part time. (CAIRO)
- Unemployment increases with city size.
The informal economy: is it a challenge or a solution, or both?
- The informal sector accounts for 65% of all jobs in Dhaka, and approx. 50% in Mexico City, 30% in
Bangkok. Globally when the level of education increase, the level of informality decreases.
Jobs in the informal sector are:
o Low in pay
o Labour intensive
o Low in productivity and security
 o Have poor working conditions.
o Potential for exploitation – especially of children.
However, it does provide cheap goods and services, thus meeting the demands of lower income groups.
Persons with low skill level often create their own employment, working as street venders, bottle collectors,
shoe polishers, professional beggars, food stalls holders and prostitutes.

Gender and the informal economy – women are more prominent in the informal Economy of Megacities.
Women make up the greatest portion of the informal sector.
o Employment in the informal sector is the source of employment that is most readily
available for women.
- Dhaka – cultural norms, religious seclusion, and literacy amount women in, along with a greater
commitment to family responsibilities, prevent women from entering the formal sector.
o Major occupations include home-based workers and street vendors.

Positives Negatives
- Contribute to economic growth. - Lack of security at work
- On average the informal sector contributes - In case of damage or injury the employee
to 41% to GDP in megacities in the does not receive fundings
developing world. - Working overtime
- Sustains families who live in poverty in - Lack of protection from Labour Law
slums. - Employee is laid off.
- Provides low-cost labour, inputs, goods, and - Employee is involved in pension insurance
services to both informal and formal or health insurance scheme.
sectors. - Low wage
- Dharavi slum in Mumbai has annual - No fringe benefits from institutional
economic output of $1 billion annually. sources
- Employees cannot save for a secure future.
- Absence of trade union organisation.

Case study – informal economy in Dharavi, Mumbai

- Home to 5000 businesses and micro enterprises and 15000 single room factories
The total turnover is estimated to by up to 1 billion us dollars a year. It exports good around the world.
Often const of various leather products, jewellery, and textiles. Often sold by luxury brands e.g. Zara.
- This thriving economy has both led to and benefitted from the development of 60 primary schools
13 secondary school and 8 private schools in the slum.
A sustainable and circular economy
- There is an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of
Mumbai. – recycling employs 250000 people.
- 60% of Mumbai’s plastic waste is recycled at Dharavi.

Trend – the informal sector is declining.

- Globally, informality in employment is declining as a percentage of GDP but remains high in the
least economically developed countries.
o For example – Mumbai, between 2018 and 2021- the proportion of employment in the
informal economy fell from 52% to 20% following the formalisation of jobs in high demand
and strong growth – sectors including:
 Construction
 Manufacturing
 Services
 Technology.
Megacities in the poorest countries ten to have higher rates of informality – Africa 70% of employment is in
the informal economy. The informal economy in Lagos accounts for 65% of employment.

Response to employment challenges – international labour standard (2015)

- Includes the payment of regular living wage, legally binding employment contracts and freedom of
association with the right to collective bargaining.
As a result of the Brazilian governments ratification of the new ILO standards into domestic law – RDJ and
SP have rapidly formalised their economies. Over the past decade, job creation in the formal economy has
been three times as rapid as in the informal economy. They have done this by extending social security,
maternity protection, decent working conditions, minimum wages and simplified tax contributions to
workers in informal sector of employment.
- Governments in China and India have not ratified all of the conventions into domestic law –
resulting in continued social inequalities – forced labour, child labour and a lack of freedom.

NGO response: Microfinance (Grameen bank, Dhaka, Bangladesh)

- Microfinance is a financial service targeting individuals and small businesses who lack access to
conventional banking and relative services.
- Microfinance includes micro credit and the provision of small loans to poor clients, usually women.
- Microfinance services are designed to teach excluded customers, such as the urban poor, to help
them become self sufficient, expand their businesses, while also aiding in the transition into the
formal economy.
- NGOs have led the campaign to expand banking services to impoverish populations in urban places.
In 2021, over 7000 microfinance institutions are operating in mega cities of the developing world,
providing small loans or provisions of credit to 120 million recipients.
Grameen bank
The Grameen bank is a microfinance organisation and community developed bank founded in 1983 darker,
Bangladesh. It makes small loans known as micro credit org remain credit to the impoverished without
requiring collateral.
- The Grameen bank focuses its lending primarily to groups of women who represent and manage a
suitable business plan. By 2011, the total borrowers of the bank number 8.4 million, and 97% of
those are women 1% of traditional borrowers are women.
- The Grameen bank in Bangladesh pioneered the idea was giving out micro loans between 27 and
$500 to poor people so they can start or expansible businesses such as St vending operations, cell
telephones rentals for small cottage industries to pull themselves out of poverty. If loans are paid
back borrowers qualify for larger loans.
- Grameen now loans money to over 100 million individuals globally and has an on time repayment
rate of over 98%.

Evaluating microfinance
microfinance is a way to promote economic development, employment, and growth through the support of
micro entrepreneurs and small businesses.
- It helped poor people manage their finances more effectively and take advantage of economic
opportunities.
- it has allowed for many people to engage in self-employment projects and generate their own
income.
- Critics often point to some of the ills of microfinance that can create indebtedness, with interest
rates of 20 to 30% on average.
Challenge #3 – WATER AND POWER

Challenge Example Response Response examples

water and power - Electricity shortage - Public private - Abhas bill
supplies - Power theft partnerships. collectors
- Water scarcity and - Urban protest - Litter of light
stress. - Operation of - Gov privatisation
NGOs and urban
protest of water
in Mexico City
- The Green/blue
water coalition
nature
conservancy
- Ilsa Urbana.
Provision of urban services
Due to the lack of formal employment, tax revenues are insufficient to provide services such as rubbish
collection, roads and infrastructure. Mega cities, as they expand, have more and more surface area covered
in Betjeman and concrete. These countries however lack developed drainage systems. As a result, urban
flooding is becoming more and more of a problem which also leads to the spread of disease.
- Storm surge causes increased natural disasters contribute to the rising of sea levels which also
contributes to severe flooding.
With less infiltration groundwater is not being recharged which can lead to water shortages and land
subsidence. In Mexico City, overuse of groundwater has led to parts of the city subsiding more than 9
metres or 30 centimetres a year. In Bangkok this has led to flooding and is now below sea level.

Electricity shortage is also a major problem.

- As the mega cities of the developing world become integrated with the global economy, people’s
expectations of services and Nikki expand. Communication technology, such as telephones, faxes,
computers, and internet access, become more closely integrated into everyday life.
- In mega cities such as Delhi and Kolkata the provision of communications technology is still
somewhat scarce. But in more developed economies such as Seoul in South Korea, communications
technology is much more widespread.

Challenge – Power supply.

As a result of urbanisation, access to electricity has grown. Urban areas across the world close to universal
access (96%), although challenges remain in the rapidly growing cities of Africa and Asia-Pacific.
- 40% of the world’s poor living in megacities in the developing world lack access to modern energy
services.

In megacities – by 2020 the demand for energy will be tripled, this requires increased government
investment. – this impacts health and the ability to do everyday jobs/chores.
10% short fall in generating peak demand.
In India 32% of power is lost due to theft, this is enough to power California.
- This costs the Indian economy 16 billion dollars a year.
In urban areas of south Asia 800 million people no access to electricity.

Link to economic activity – alack of electricity access has a negative impact on education and on
productivity income-generating activities.
- Electricity supplies are often inadequate and unreliable in megacities resulting in frequent blackouts
and brown outs. Power out reduce foreign investment and quality of living for residents.
 - Without electricity for cooking – biomass is often used by the poorest household’s contribution to
low air quality and great household fire risk.

Challenge – Power theft.

Slum electrification in slims can be controlled by informal suppliers who control illegal distribution
networks.
In Mumbai, there are 10 illegal electricity connections for every 100 legal ones.
- Electricity is commonly stolen – by third parties – which results in poor quality service provided at
very high prices and extremely dangerous conditions.
In 2020 the slims of Dhaka experienced 30 separate fire incidents as a result of electricity faults which
destroyed dwellings and displaced 20000 squatters.
- Power theft is responsible for 10 billion dollars of losses from Indian electricity companies yearly.

Response – TATA POWER COMPANY. (debt collectors)

Tata power Co’s joint venture with the Delhi state government hired women living in the 223 slums it serves
in Delhi and called them Abhas – meaning light.
- Forces 841 women work in the slums as community debt collectors – they are trained and then
educate slum dwellers on power conservation and safe practices.
- The result is a 183% increase in revenue over five years from the slums of Delhi, with minimal cost
to the company. Active and formal power connections haver risen 40% to 196000.
- Abhas are employed in the formal sector – workers receive an education and clean water subsidised
by the power company.

Response – Self-help, Litter of light – frugal response.

Global water statistics.

- The challenge of sanitation water in the house will stop urbanisation means stress of natural water
supplies.
- 2.5 billion people live without sanitation. the urban poor including children are extremely
vulnerable to this.
- Between 1998 and 2008 1.0 five 2 billion urban dwellers gained access to improved drinking water
and 813 million to improve sanitation. However, the urban population in that. Grew by 1 billion
people and thus undermined the progress.
- One out of four city residents worldwide live without access to improved sanitation facilities.
- 500 million people in cities rely on shared sanitation. In 1990, this number was 250 million
- 27% of the urban dwellers in developing countries do not have access to piped water at home.
- 7 poor pay up to 50 times as they buy from private businesses, more for a litre of water than their
richer neighbours, since they often have to buy their water from private vendors.

14 of the world's 20 legacies are now experiencing water scarcity or drought conditions. As many as 4
billion people already live in regions that experience severe water stress, less water to meet their daily
needs, for at least one month of the year.
- This is the result of climate change, a lack of infrastructure, overpopulation and poverty.

Water resources in Sao Paulo, Brazil

Brazil, a country rich in water resources, possesses 14% of the world water.
- This is not evenly distributed, 70% of water is found in the Amazon River, and only 1.6% of the in the
state of Sao Paulo come away 25% of the nation's population resides
- Half of Brazil's 22 water basins face critical shortages, particularly those within the cell Paulo
metropolitan area, where water demand exceeds water availability, and half of the states water
supply is brought from neighbouring basins. – 40% in untreated water system.
 - Sao Paulo also raises over 20% of its treated water due to leaking pipes before it reaches the taps of
its residents.
- With the subtropical climate and steep hillsides this creates severe drainage problems, especially
when storm waters flows through sewer slums, picking up loose debris that cloak straining shuttles
and that can imperil local drinking water supplies. Environmental laws were passed in the 1980s to
protect watersheds from construction projects, however developments have been completed there
regardless.
If the rainforest gets removed this means there is not enough water in the catchments and this may cause
transpiration.

2014 to 17 droughts in Sao Paulo

The Brazil drought was the worst drought in Brazil in 100 years.
- A combination of natural and human made causes, including climate change, environmental
degradation, poor urban planning, or lack of maintenance of existing infrastructure, corruption, and
the mismanagement of water resources all contributed to a growing water crisis.
- Brazil relies heavily on hydroelectric power plants as its primary energy source and therefore is
particularly vulnerable to droughts.
- The city turned off its water supply for 12 hours a day, forcing many businesses and industries to
shut down.
- Fighting in cues, theft of water, and the looting of emergency water trucks resulted in an armed civil
guards being deployed to protect water resource is and civilians.
- The crisis is most felt in the generally poorer districts on the outskirts of the cities these neglected
neighbourhoods, many of which sit at higher altitudes in the hills around the city, require more
water pressure to reach there tanks. And even on days when it is raining outside, the pipes are often
dry.

Response – the nature conservancy:

The green blue water coalition – Partnerships and the operation of NGOs.
- Through forest restoration and protection and improved agricultural practices -> improved water
quality – also benefits ecosystems, slows climate change – carbon sequestration. Restoration pays
for itself, water quality (trees).
- The GBC is an initiative to increase water security for more than 60 million Brazilians in 12
metropolitan regions including the investment in green infrastructure in partnership with the
private sector and NGOs - including the nature conservancy.
o An example of the green infrastructure is the Cantareira Catchment Project (part of the GBC)
which aims to conserve and restore critical watersheds through reforestation and
rehabilitation of degraded forests in the Cantareira reservoir, which possesses only 21% of its
original forest cover.
Evaluating nature Conservancy Blue Green Coalition
Benefits:
- Climate control – generate water supply in dry periods through fog capture – this reforestation
project will also sequester up to 57 million tons on CO2 over the next 30 years.
- Sedimentation control – prevent erosion, avoid soil and nutrient losses, and therefore improve
water quality. This will reduce sediment pollution by 36% over 30 years.
- Flood controls – the Atlantic Forest acts as a sponge to curb floods during periods of high rain fall
and slowly release this water in dry periods to sustain local water supply.
- Improved lives and livelihoods – provide jobs and recreation spaces – 215 thousand jobs.

Water stress in Mexico City.

The challenge:
- One of the world's largest cities, Mexico City is home to 21 million people. 20% of Mexico’s
population lives in the city of. By 20-30, the population of the city will grow to 30 million people.
 - Quote change, over extraction, ageing infrastructure and sewerage contamination affect the quality
in quantity of water available for domestic use in the city.
- 40% of the city’s water is lost due to leaking pipes.
- On average almost 16 metres squared of water per inhabitant per day are extracted and only about
11 are replaced - Mexico City is shrinking downwards an estimated 1 metre per year. The substance
also affects infrastructure above and below ground, damaging the pipes that bring water to people
as well as removing their waste.
The poor are disproportionately affected.
- The poorest residents are affected the worst. Some are not connected to the city toward a network
and must rely on buying it per litre. As a result, many of the city's inhabitants haven't interrupted
water supply, with taps turning on twice per week. While many houses store water tanks to
overcome this lack of supply, and these are expensive.

Response: Isla Urbana (urban island) (NGO) Rainwater harvesting.

The need: of the rainfall that falls in Mexico City, 72% of apparatus and returns to the atmosphere, 21%
drains through water bodies and 6.3% infiltrates the subsoil and recharges aquifers, of which 105 out of
653 are overexploited.
- Isla Urbana is a non-profit organisation that has designed an environmentally, socially, and
economically sustainable rainwater harvesting system that collects and cleans rainwater for
households, schools and health clinics.
- The system is inexpensive, easy to install and provides individual residents with about 40% of their
water supply.
Frugal engineering: systems that are affordable and easy to maintain by residents.
Capacity building: recipients are educated on how to construct and maintain RWH systems.
This is an example of a frugal response and capacity building.

- By stalling rainwater harvesting systems and water purification technologies in houses, apartments,
and public buildings, 75,000 litres of water have been saved since the implementation of the
programme. Nearly 500 rainwater harvesting systems, water purification technologies, and drinking
water devices have been installed benefitting over 56,000 people.

Benefits of rainwater harvesting:

Economic: each rainwater harvesting system guarantees a supply of up to 40,000 litres of drinking water
per year, which means an annual saving around $200 per family.
Environmental: each rainwater harvesting system has the capacity to store around 700 litres per square
metre, preventing aquifers, groundwater, and drainage systems from being overexploited.
Health: but what a purification systems and drinking devices ensure the quality of water for human
consumption, migrating 99% of pathogenic bacteria, which helps to prevent diseases such as diarrhoea and
typhoid.