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PREFACE

This practical book has been compiled by ROBERT

BANDIKUBI to improve practical answering techniques of
students preparing for A-level Biology Practical (P530/3)
examination at Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education.
This book contains exhaustive practical explanatory notes
that equip students with practical skills of critical thinking
like observation, drawing, recording of data, critical analysis,
assessment and interpretation of data.
Questions in this book are to guide students specifically on
question approach that will improve on their answering
technique that is supposed to be precise and exact.

It also contains well organized practical questions on

dissection for practice, based on UNEB syllabus, hence offers
extensive practice in all areas of dissection Practical Biology.

This book is expected to improve on their Knowledge,

attitude, practices and confidence, hence enabling the
students excel in A-level Biology Practical (P530/3)
examinations.

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“A” LEVEL BIOLOGY PRACTICAL

WORK BOOK FOR PAPER 3(P530/3)

BY ROBERT BANDIKUBI
MASTERS IN PUBLIC HEALTH (IHSU)
BSC/ED (M.U.K)
EDUCATION OFFICER
MENGO SENIOR SCHOOL

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GUIDELINES TO DISSECTIONS

The main objective of dissection is to study anatomy of organisms. This involves studying of the location,
structure and functions of each organ of various body systems of an organism. For example, organs of
digestion, organs of reproduction, organs of excretion, organs of nervous system, and endocrine organs,
then make a drawing basing strictly on the instructions of the question.

THE FOLLOWING RULES SHOULD BE ADHERED TO WHEN CARRYING OUT A DISSECTION.

 Read the instructions carefully right to the end, then carry out the tasks reading
instructions again, item by item.
 Always have with you a complete dissecting kit.
 Ensure the animal is dead before you proceed to dissect.
 Pin the animal on board or on the hard button of a dissecting dish with the body well
stretched.
 When dissecting long thin structures like nerves, blood vessels, intestines etc. Cut along
them but not across their length.
 Always keep the organs of specimen wet using moist cloth or cotton wool.
 Never cut or remove anything without knowing what it is.
 If the animal has a lot of fat, remove it to expose underlying organs without injuring other
organs.
 The magnification should be indicated at the left bottom of the drawing.
 Make sure you display the structures instructed in the question clearly.
 All drawings of dissections should be large, well labeled without label lines crossing each
other.
 Never allow bleeding of the animal, if it does wipe it thoroughly with wet cotton wool.

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THE COCKROACH
CLASSIFICATION OF THE COCKROACH
Kingdom: Phylum Class Order

Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Dictyoptera

Family Genus Species

Blattidae Periplaneta periplaneta americana, (Africana

The phylum of a cockroach is an ARTHROPODA due to the

 possession of exoskeleton –for protection and locomotion
 segmented body- for flexibility
 Jointed appendages like limbs,-for flexibility.

Its class is INSECTA due to

 the possession of three main body parts i.e head, thorax and abdomen,
 three pairs of limbs/legs,
 a pair of antennae, and
 three thoracic segments i.e prothorax ,mesothorax and metathorax

Its order is DICTYOPTERA

Reasons
 Has a pair of long segmented antennae/feellers
 Body dorsal ventrally flattened,
 A pair of segmented anal cerci.
 Have two pairs of wings

SHAPE AND APPEARANCE OF THE BODY;

Shape:
The body is dorso-ventrally flattened and its abdomen is expanded in the middle.
The significance of flattened body to easily enter narrow places /cracks or crevices to escape predation.

Appearance:
The animal is pale brown in colour on the dorsal surface beneath the wings, and dark brown on the
ventral surface, its exoskeleton is waxy and glossy (smooth), the significance of the brown colour is for
camouflage in order to escape predation. The waxy nature of its body surface prevents desiccation, as it
is water repellent .The glossy exoskeleton is for easy escape from the enemies.

HABITAT AND HABITS:-

Habitat:

Dark cracks and crevices of wall especially in the vicinity of warm places

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Habits: they are nocturnal, emerging to feed only at night .they feed on a variety of organic materials
including household property like paper and cloth .cockroach run very fast and they can fly due their
long hind limbs.

Adaptation of the cockroach to its environment:

 Body is dorso-ventrally flattened to enable it enter into small cracks to avoid predation.
 The sharp hard curved claws firm grip on rough surfaces during locomotion.
 Has swollen arolium that produces sticky substances for locomotion on smooth walls/structures.
 Their dark brown colour is for camouflage hence reducing chances of predation
 The long antennae for detecting stimuli at a distance.
 Mandibles are sharp and serrated to cut food during feeding
 The body cuticle is waxy, preventing desiccation of the animal
 The pointed spines on the limbs for protection and locomotion on rough surfaces.
 The hind legs are long for fast movement.
 The broad/large inner wings for increased surface area for flight.
 The thick outer wings for protection against physical injuries.
 The segmented body for increased flexibility during locomotion.
 The large compound eyes with numerous eye units for increased surface area for sensitivity to
sight.

THE BODY AND MOUTH PARTS

THE HEAD
The head is small and clearly viewed from the ventral side .it is separated from the thorax by a short
neck and limited in movement posteriorly by an enlarged tergum of prothorax.

It has compound eyes which are in meshes of ommatidia/network of eye units, large, kidney shaped,
black in colour and are situated dorso-laterally at the end .the location of the eyes gives the animal a
wide field of view in its habitat. The eyes are large to increase the surface area for receiving light and the
black colour of the eyes increases the ability of the eyes to absorb light for easy seeing.
Compound eyes; are Large/protruding/curved outwards for wide field of view

Describe the arrangement of the eye units

It consists of hexagonal/polygonal;large;numerous;;closely
packed;;ommatidia which are adjacent to each
other;;regularly/parallel;;arranged
Significance of the arrangement
Numerous ommatidia/units/compact regularly arranged
to increase field of view and sensitivity.

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The head bears one pair of antennae which is characterized by having a broad base being hairy, thin,
and long to the length of the whole body, segmented, and tapers from base towards the tip.

Adaptation of the antennae to their function

 Long to feel/sense at long distance/a distance around the body.
 Segmented /jointed for flexibility/to ease movement
 Thin/slender to easy swinging in all directions
 Antennae segmental/jointed for flexibility/easy swinging/more in all direction
 Tapering antennae to easily swing in all directions
 It has socket at the base for increased flexibility
 They are hairy to increase sensitivity.(microscopic)

NOTE:
Segmentation of the antennae at the base is even for females and uneven for males .The anterior end of
the male cockroach is pointed while that of the female is blunt.

When the head is viewed from the dorsal side, the base of the antennae and their first segments are not
observed, but the kidney shaped black compound eyes are observed clearly.

Note
When the specimens are viewed from the dorsal side, the sides of the specimen match with those of the
observer. In other wards; the right side of the specimen is on the right side of the observer.

When the head is viewed from the ventral side of the animal, the base of the antennae is observed with
their first segments covering parts of the compound eye.

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MOUTH PARTS
These are the labrum upper lips.
 One pair of mandibles and maxillae.(1st maxillae)
 Labrum lower lip (2nd maxillae) which is curved and large
 Hypopharynx.
The labrum (upper lip); the upper lip which covers the other mouth parts.

The mandibles: They are two, large, serrated , sharp edge, hard, attached to the body by tough muscle.
Adaptations
 Mandibles are Serrated/Sharp edge to increase surface area for crushing/cutting food into smaller
particles
 Large to increase surface area during cutting of food

Labrum/upper lip is large and curved to prevent food from falling out of the mouth during feeding
Maxillae
These occur immediately behind the mandibles and consist of hairy ,segmented and long maxillary palps
.it also consists of sharp edge ,hooked galea and lacinia ,cardo and stipes .its function is to sense hold
and push the food into the mouth ,

The Maxillae is adapted to its function by having;

 Have Long palps to reach food at a distance
 Has segmented palps for flexibility when pushing push food in the mouth.
 Hairy maxillary palps for sensitivity(microscopic)
 Having the lacinia and galea are hooked for holding food.
 Having lacinia has sharp edges for cutting food.

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Labium
This is made up of three proximal segments called submentum, mentum, palpiger, grossa and
paraglossa.
It is used to sense, holds, cut and pushing food into the mouth;
It is adapted to its function by;
 Having hairy labial palps to increase sensitivity to food.
 Has segmented palps for flexibility/to push food into the mouth.
 Having sharp glossa for cutting food.
THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN

THE THORAX:
The thorax is divided into three segments, the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, in that order
from anterior to posterior, each bearing a pair of limbs.
Each limb consists of coxa which is broad, muscular and flattened, the small triangular trochanter, a long
and muscular femur, long tibia and a distal foot consisting of five jointed tarsal segments of varying
length which reduces downwards.

HIND LIMBS
The tibia of the hind limb bears pointed spines for protection and firm gripping onto rough surface.
The hind limb is jointed for increased flexibility during locomotion.
Each of the first four segments bears sticky pad called plantulaethat produces sticky substances for
locomotion on slippery/smooth surfaces. The last foot segment/pretarsus bears arolium located
between the curved claws.
The glandular pad called arolium is enlarged/swollen to provide a large area for attachment /gripping on
the slippery surface. It has glandular pads on tarsal segments for secreting a sticky substance for
gripping on slippery surfaces during locomotion.
The claws are long, curved, pointed and tapering. Claws are hard and curved easy attachment on rough
surfaces and defense. The spines are long, pointed, and curved inwards; the spines are long and pointed
for easy defense by pricking the enemy.

Adaptation of the Hind limbs

 Jointed for flexibility during locomotion
 Pointed spines for defence/protection
against enemies
 Pointed spines to increase grip on
rough surfaces
 Pointed/curved claws for grip on rough
surfaces
 Plantulae/arolium/glandular pad for
secretion of adhesive/sticky substance
for grip on slippery/smooth surfaces.
 Dull coloured for camouflage
 Broad/large coxae for generation of propulsive force/for locomotion
 Long femur/tibia to generate propulsive force/for locomotion/movement
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WINGS
Two pairs of wings arising from mesothorax and metathorax
The forewings /outer wings /anterior wings arise from mesothorax
i) Fore wing/outer/anterior wing

Description
Straight margin, elongated/oblong, narrow, relatively thick, and mainly parallel veined to form tegmina

Adaptation : Thick to offer protection

The highly thickened forewings of insects like beetles are called Elytra (singular Elytron) due to their
position and are also for protection

ii) Hind wings/hind/posterior wing

The hind wings /inner wings (flying wings arise from metathorax:
Description
Membranous/thin, large/broad, notched margin; folded and supported by a branching network of veins.
They are used for flight. Wings arise between the tergum (dorsal cuticle) and pleuron(lateral cuticle)
The inner wings have three main veins also allow circulating of air hence making the wings light for
flight.
Adaptations of hind wings
 Large/broad for increased surface area for flight
 Thin membrane makes light for flight

NB:
The wide spread of the veins
provides enough support and large
surface area for circulation of gases.
Two pairs of spiracles exist on the
thorax between the prothorax and
mesothorax and the other between
mesothorax and metathorax.

Differences between thoracic and abdominal spiracles

Thoracic spiracles/ abdominal spiracles

 Relatively Larger Relatively smaller
 Oval shaped round
 Has valves Lacks valves
 Unhairy aperture/smooth it’s hairy

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THE ABDOMEN:

The abdomen consists of ten (10) segments, though not all are visible.
The first seven segments are easily visible in both sexes; the 7th tergum almost completely overlaps the
8th the 9th tergum narrow compared to the 7th .
The 10th tergum is flat, broad and notched/divided. From the base of the 10th tergum, a pair of long,
segmented, hairy, tapering posteriorly anal cerci.
 The abdomen of the male cockroach is narrow compared to that of the females.
 The 9th tergum of the males bares a pair of long , tapering external genitalia called anal styles
which are absent in the females.
 The female cockroach bears swollen, tapering posteriorly podical plate which is visible on
ventral side of the abdomen.
 When the 10th tergum is lifted upwards, reproductive gonapophyses structures become visible.
 They are just covered by the 9th and 10th segments in the males, or covered by 10th podical
plates in the female.

From the dorsal view, podical plates of the female cockroach are not seen. But however the styles of
male cockroach protrude beneath the last abdomen segment.
From the ventral side the attachment of the cerci is not visible but podical plates are seen .The podical
plates protect the egg case.

SEX INDENTIFICATION

Sex: Male Female

 Has a narrow abdomen Has a broader abdomen.
 Has a pair of unsegmented styles Has podical plates/podical opening/ovipositor/
oothecal chamber
 Has pointed male gonapophyses has blunt/round ended female gonapophyses

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BODY SYSTEM OF THE COCKROACH

Digestive system .The alimentary canal of a cockroach consists three main regions, the fore gut, short
mid gut (mesenteron) and hind gut.
Alimentary canal starts from the gullets down to the anus. It consists of gullet, crop, and gizzards,
digestive caecum, mid gut, ileum, colon and the anus.

SALIVARY GLAND

It is found in prothoracic region and it consists of salivary receptacle, salivary gland and salivary ducts.
Salivary glands are divided into numerous, round and small alveolar shaped secretary parts. The
numerous secretary parts increase the surface area for secreting digestive juice (saliva).
The common duct of salivary gland branches into many small ducts which spread allover the salivary
gland.

This arrangement increases the surface area for collecting saliva.

The main common duct for receptacle branches into two large ducts and each duct collects the saliva
from the salivary receptacle is structurally elongated and large in order to store much saliva .

Drawing of the salivary gland under medium power

Adaptations of salivary gland to its function
 It consists numerous secretary parts (alveoli) to
increase surface area for secreting saliva.
 It consists of large salivary receptacle for
storing more saliva.
 It consists numerous ducts to easily collect
more saliva.
 All ducts fuse into one main ducts to control
flow of saliva

THE GULLET
It is tubular, long structure made up of muscular wall with a smooth inner lining. its the longest part of
found in the thoracic region, the contraction of muscular wall moves the food to the crop and the
smooth inner lining eases movement of the food.

THE CROP
The gullet dilates to form the crop .it is found in the abdominal region ,it is enlarged ,conical shaped and
consists of elastic muscular wall with smooth folded inner lining and wide lumen. Starch digestion also
occurs in the crop by means of salivary amylase produced by salivary glands.
Its function is storage and for preliminary digestion of food.
The crop is adapted to its function by having;
 Folded inner lining is to increase the surface area for digestion of food
 It is Elastic and folded to easily stretch and accommodate /store food.
 Smooth inner lining for easy passage of food by reducing friction.

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THE GIZZARD
The gizzard is a short conical chamber with thick muscular walls. Its lumen is narrow and reduced by
infoldings of the wall and the six principal folds are highly sclerotized/ hardened thickenings ending in
pointed teeth.Its inner lining is folded and ridged /rough.
The gizzard is adapted to its function by having.
 Folded inner lining to increase the surface area for digestion of food.
 Toothed /Six ridges for physical/mechanical digestion of the food.
 Thick muscular wall to generate powerful contraction during crushing of the food.

THE DIGESTIVE (MESENTERIC) CAECUM

These are many/eight, tubular, long, cylindrical, flexible, and anterior tapering structures projecting
from the mid gut. Their functions are secretion of digestive enzymes for digestion of food and
absorption of digested food.
They are many, long and tubular for increasing the surface area for absorption of soluble food.

The mid gut starts from just behind the gizzard and ends in front of the ileum. It is a site for digestion
and absorption of food.

It is a thin walled long tubular organ attached to the gizzard. It is the place where most of the digestion
and absorption of digested food takes place.

Adaptations of the mid gut

 It has many digestive caeca to increase the surface area for absorption of soluble food and for
release of digestive juices
 The thin inner wall eases absorption of digested food.
 Lacks cuticle to facilitate absorption of soluble food.

THE HIND GUT

The hindgut consists of ileum, colon and rectum.

This part of the gut contains waste materials. There is neither digestion nor absorption of digested food.
it is only water absorbed from the colon to increase water conservation. The function of the colon is to
allow water absorption and for to passage of wastes/Removal of unwanted materials. The colon is long
to increase surface area for water absorption. it has a large lumen for passage of large volume of
unwanted material/wastes.
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THE ILEUM
It is short and thin .it bears numerous thin tubules called malpighian tubules which do not have any
digestive function. It is used for removal of excretory waste products. From the haemolymph and empty
it into the gut where is removed together with the faeces. It is still used for absorption of digested food

ADAPTATIONS OF THE ILEUM

Internally, the ileum is folded longitudinally and possesses many thin backward pointing setae to control
passage of undigested food material and uric acid.
It is narrow to allow food stay longer in the mid gut to maximize digestion and absorption.
Malpighian tubules are not part of the alimentary canal; they are just accessory to it (just attached to it
without having any digestive function.).

THE COLON
The colon is wider and longer than the ileum and smooth inside.

Adaptation
It is wider and longer to accommodate undigested food and uric acid.

Without any displacement gizzard, hind gut and ileum are not observed. Thus they should not be
included in the drawing.

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THE RECTUM
It stores wastes. Contraction of its wall leads to removal of unwanted materials from the body through
the anus.
Is short and wide and has six pronounced longitudinal ridges internally forming the rectal gland.

Adaptation
 It is short and wider lumen to increase storage of the feaces and uric acid temporary.
 It has rectal glands for water absorption.

Generally the hindgut is thicker than fore and mid gut to create powerful peristalsis which aid removal
of feaces and solid nitrogenous excreta
Anus is a narrow, hollow, opening external part of the alimentary canal

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The cockroach has simple open circulatory system made up of the tubular heart, aorta, and the alary
muscles The heart of the cockroach is elongated, thick, muscular, tubular and 13 funnel-shaped and
segmentally arranged chambers. Ten (10) in the abdomen and three(3) in the thorax. The first chamber
leads into an aorta, which opens in the head sinuses. The alary muscles are responsible for the
circulation and control blood movement through the heart.All those structures are found on the dorsal
cuticles.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is the simple system consists of the nerve cord and ganglia .Three ganglia are found in the thoracic
region and each segment of the thorax has a large ganglion and there are six abdominal ganglia, the last
being larger than others. The nervous system is found on the ventral cuticle.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of the mushroom shaped gland which produces the male
gametes, and ejaculatory duct for passage of the gametes.

The female reproductive system consists of the vagina which receives the male gametes, the vagina
branches into two oviducts; the left and right oviduct where fertilization takes place each oviduct divides
into eight ovaries which produce the ova.

The fertilized ova are wrapped into a cacoon called oothecal chamber which is stored and carried by the
podical plates. The reproductive system is found on the ventral cuticle.

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The cuticle may not be fully opened .it is thus necessary to master the location of each and every feature
in the cockroach.
This helps to draw correctly incase a part of the cuticles is to be opened. For example the thoracic and
the five adjacent abdominal segments can be opened to expose the internal structures as indicated in
the drawing below.

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AMPHIBIANS (TOAD/ FROGS)

Classification:

Kingdom Phylum Class Order

Animalia Chordata Amphibia Anura

Family Genus Species

Bufonidae Bufo /Rana bufo regularis (Common toad)/temporaria

Reasons for classification in class Amphibia.

 It has a thin moist glandular skin i.e. skin with many mucus secreting glands/warty skin
 It has a wide gape.
 It has a web between the toes/digits of hind limbs.
Reasons for classification in order anura
 It has external eardrum
 Hind limbs are elongated and enlarged for leaping.
 Hind limbs have a web of skin between the digits.

Habitat: Amphibians live in damp places on land and frequently swimming in fresh water e.g. in ponds
or streams.

TOADS
They are usually found in the ponds and moist places of land environment. Thus the habitat of the toads
is aquatic and damp land areas.
It is aquatic habitat due to the following reasons.
 It tapers anteriorly to provide a streamlined body to reduce water resistance during swimming.
 Eyes are dorso-laterally located to maintain aerial contact when the body is submerged in water.
 The digits of hind limbs have a web between them to increase the surface area for swimming.
 Nostrils are anteriorly located on the top of the head to maintain breathing when the body is
submerged in water.
The habitat is damp terrestrial area due to the following reasons;
 It tapers anteriorly to provide a streamlined body to reduce air resistance during locomotion.
 The eyes are large and dorsal –laterally located for wide field of view on land.
 The hind limbs are muscular and long for leaping long distance.
 The skin has many swellings which secrete mucus to keep the moist for easy cutaneous
breathing on land
 The skin has numerous swellings which secrete poisons to chase away predators(warty skin)
 Its dorsal skin surface is dark multi-coloured/dull coloured for camouflage to escape predation.

N.B Toads and frogs are called amphibians because they have moist skin and webbed toes of hind limbs.
However, the toads are more adapted to land than the frogs, only going into water during breeding
seasons. On the other hand, most frogs live in water for the rest of their life.

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GENERAL ADAPTATIONS OF A TOAD TO SURVIVE IN ITS HABITAT

 Dorso-laterally positioned/large/round and protruding /bulging eyes for wide field of view;
 Long/muscular hind limbs for propulsive force/forward thrust when
jumping/swimming/locomotion
 Head tapering anteriorly/pointed/triangular to provide a streamlined body for reduced
resistance during locomotion.
 Digits/toes of hind foot have a web between them to increase the surface area for swimming.
 It has a wide gape/opening of the buccal cavity for consuming/ ingesting prey of large size.
 Small rounded hollow/opening located anteriorly for breathing/passage for gases/air when
submerged in water.
 Large numerous swellings of poison glands for defense/protection/to be unpalatable.
 Many swellings of mucus secreting glands to moisten skin for gaseous exchange/temperature
regulation
 Long/muscular hind limbs for propulsive force/forward thrust when
jumping/swimming/locomotion
 Thin transparent Nictitating membrane to protect the/moisten the eye.
THE SKIN
 It is thin and moistened by mucus secreting gland to allow gaseous exchange on land and while
submerged in water.
 It is warty and slimy making it slippery to touch and hence allowing the animal to escape easily
from predation.
 The dull colour (green for frog and dark brown on the dorsal part and pale brown on the ventral
part of the toad) helps them to camouflage efficiently in their environment to avoid predation.
 It is tough for protection
 It has swellings of poison glands all over the body, with two large swellingsclose to the head, for
protection against predators by producing much piosson to make it unpalatable.

SKIN ATTACHMENT TO THE BODY

The skin loosely attached to the body wall at the abdominal region create a fluid filled space for
dissolution of gases.loosely attached at the ventral abdominal region/ lower trunk region. The loose
attachment in the abdominal region is to accommodate lymph sacs which facilitate gaseous exchange.

The skin is firmly attached; to body wall at the pectoral/pelvic region /fore /hind limbs; throat region;
on the head to hold the skin on to the body of the animal; and at the limb joints for support during
locomotion.

THE NATURE OF THE SKIN

 It is thin and large to reduce diffusion distance of gases.
 It has numerous swellings of mucus secreting gland that keep the skin moist to ease gaseous
exchange by dissolving the respiratory gases
 It has numerous capillaries on inner surface to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.

Nature and pattern of blood circulation

One; large blood vessel, musculo-cutaneous vein; big sized, emerging from the arm pits branches/divide
into smaller blood vessels/venule which subdivide/branch into a network of many blood capillaries;
distributed allover inner surface of skin and the blood vessels embedded/attached onto the skin.

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SIGNIFICANCE
Forms a network to increase the surface area for increased gaseous exchange; and reduced diffusion
distance; thus faster rate of materials/ gases; or for increased transport/flow /draining of blood away
from the skin; leading to increased gradient/diffusion of gases;

THE LIMBS
Fore limbs are ventro-laterally attached onto anterior part of the body trunk to support the body above
the ground when at rest.
Differences between fore limb and hind limb
Fore limb Hind limb
 Relatively Short and stout Relatively Long and folded
 Ends in four well developed digits Ends in five well developed digits
 No webs between the digits Has a web of skin between the digits Has three
 has two main regions /few joints main regions/many joints
 smaller and upper part Less massive Larger and upper part More massive

Ratio Significance
Ratio of fore limb The hind limb is twice as long/longer than the fore limb to generate propulsive force
to hind limb is for swimming/leaping/hopping/locomotion
1:2 Fore limb is shorter/half the length of the hind limb to absorb shock on
landing/during hopping/locomotion

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Arrangement of the thigh muscles

Four/five muscle blocks arranged parallel to each other longitudally with large muscle blocks at either
the side and narrow blocks in between. Muscle blocks overlap and are closely packed. Muscles attached
on either side by tendons.

ADAPTATION OF THE LIMBS TO THEIR FUNCTIONS:

 The fore limbs are short and muscular to absorb the shock on landing; they also support the
body off the ground during resting.
 The hind limbs are longer, muscular and highly folded into three regions to provide a great
forward thrust to the body during long jumping on land and swimming in water .the length is for
long jumping .the muscular nature is for greater thrust force.
 The hind limbs have a web between the digits to provide a large surface area, for easy
swimming.
 The hind limbs have longer digits for firm gripping/grasping on land during locomotion.

How Hind limb is adapted for the survival of a toad in its habitat
 long/muscular to generate propulsive forward thrust for swimming/hopping/locomotion
 web between the toes/digits for increased surface area to ease swimming
 Jointed digits/limbs for flexibility during locomotion.
 dull coloured for camouflage/brown/black patches for camouflage
 long digits to increase grip during locomotion
 moist skin for gaseous exchange
 numerous mucus glands/swellings to secrete mucus to moisten the skin for gaseous exchange
 numerous/many poison glands/swellings which secrete poison for defence
 five well developed digits for support and stability

THE HEAD
The shape and position

 it tapers anteriorly and triangular with narrow apex

and broad posterior and joined to the trunk directly
 It is dorso-ventrally flattened

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE HEAD SHAPE:

 The head tapers anteriorly to give the animal a streamlined body that reduces water and air
resistance during movement.
 It’s dorsal –laterally flattened for floating.

THE HEAD FEATURES

THE NOSTRILS:
 The nostrils are a pair of small rounded opening located anteriorly on the head and above the
mouth. This allows smelling and ventilation when the rest of the body is submerged in water.
Adaptation: A pair of naris/nares/small holes/Rounded ,open nostrils located at the tip of head/snout to
ease breathing on land/when submerged in water.rej gaseous exchange/help in breathing
THE EYES:

The eyes are large, round and protruding /bulging, dorso-laterally located at the head anterior to the
each ear drum. They have poorly developed eyelids. The upper one is stiff and immovable while the
lower one is modified by developing a third membrane which is thin transparent and movable called
nictitating membrane.
Adaptation: Large protruding/dorso-laterally located eyes for wide field of view/better view/clear
seeing.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EYES
 The dorso-lateral location of the eyes gives the animal a wide field of view in its habitat.
 The nictitating membrane which secretes a fluid to lubricate the eyes and prevent entry of
foriegh particles/ protection without interrupting the continuity of vision
THE EAR-DRUM/TYMPANIC MEMBRANE;
Shape, structure and position
It is prominent, thin, circular, flattened ,tough and tight/stretched membrane which is laterally located
at posterior end of each eye.

Significance of the ear drum/tympanic membrane:

 Its tough nature makes it resist external pressure without rupturing.
 Its being circular gives it a wide surface area for receiving sound waves.
 It is a stretched membrane to easily vibrate upon receiving sound waves to make hearing easy.
Adaptation: thin Flattened ear drum/tympanic membrane to allow for streamline shape or
it’s being circular gives it a wide surface area for receiving sound waves and It is a stretched membrane
to easily vibrate upon receiving sound waves to make hearing easy.

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THE MOUTH
It is anteriorly located on the head. it has a wide gape for ingesting prey of large size.
It has teeth which are uniform in size and tongue.
Adaptation: Large mouth to provide a wide gape for capturing/ingesting prey of large size.
THE TONGUE:
The tongue is long muscular, flat, elastic/ stretchable, forked/bilobed anteriorly, sticky/slimy and has
many small blood vessels. It is attached on the floor; at the front.
It is used for trapping insects for food. it has a wide base. On its ventral surface, it has a tributary of
lingual vein running in the middle along the tongue. The main vein branches into smaller veins on either
side.
ADAPTATIONS OF THE TONGUE TO ITS FUNCTION:
 Long and elastic to trap insects at relatively far distance for food.
 Sticky to trap small animals (insects) easily, which are not able to escape once, they fall on it.
 It is muscular to easily stretch out (flick out) and trap insects.
 Flattened to increase the surface area for trapping the prey.
 It has numerous glands that secrete sticky mucus to easily trap the prey.
 It is biloded/forked at the tip to increase surface area to capture insects/ to easily trap the prey.
 Has a wide base for firm attachment.
 It is attached to anterior end of the lower buccal floor to easily flick out and trap insect at a long
distance.
NOTE
To dissect the toad, lay it on the board with the ventral side upper most. Stretch the limbs and pin them
firmly on the board .open and loosen the skin off the underlying body the muscles. Pin the skin to the
sides. Take not of the exposed thoracic muscles, xiphisternum, linea Alba, abdominal wall, high muscles
and cutaneous vessels. The neatly draw and label the dissection.

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SEX IDENTIFICATION
Distinction between the sexes is not very obvious since there are no external genitalia.
However, males and females can be distinguished by following characteristics.
Characteristics of males:
 Usually slender-bodied
 Skin underlying the throat is usually white.
 Develop a rough black, warty patch on the ventral surface of the first (pre-axial) finger on the
forelimb called the nuptial pad.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALES:
 Broad abdomen, bloated with eggs especially during the breeding season.
 Skin underlying the throat is creamy white /grey.
NB.Don’t write no nuptial pad on first finger even when it is true that it is absent except when you are
comparing the two specimens.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

It is divided into two parts, the alimentary canal and associated organs. The alimentary canal starts from
the gullet up to the anus. The associated organs involved any structures that functionary help the
alimentary canal to digest and absorb the digested food like the pancreas, liver and the gall bladder.

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NB: From the drawing above the stomach and duodenum are found on the left side of the abdomen.
Other organs found on the left side but not visible without displacement are spleen, left kidney, left
testis/ovary urethra, ovisac/vesicular seminalis and oviduct.

MOUTH AND BUCCAL CAVITY

The mouth is terminal and very wide, extending back as far as the tympanic membrane on each side.
This provides a wide gape for the ingestion of large pieces of food material.
The upper jaw bears a row of numerous maxillary teeth which are structurally uniform, small, pointed,
conical shaped and curved inwards.
The upper floor bears pores called internal nares (singular; naris) .they are two small round openings,
guarded by valves, used for breathing. Each is found on the sides of vomerine teeth.
Maxillary and vomerine teeth which are grooved/ridged surface for holding/gripping of food.

The vomerine teeth protrude out of the roof of the mouth above the eye balls and between the internal
nares .They are many /crowded, pointed, and curved inward, their function is to prevent escape of prey.
The buccal cavity consists of strong jaws which grip the large prey to prevent it from escaping.
Two large oval protrusions on the roof indicate the positions of eyeballs, which play part in swallowing.
Drawing showing the internal structures of the buccal cavity

Maxillary teeth: feel rough this is to hold prey/prevent prey escape/ready to be swallowed
Tongue
 Long tongue to reach out to the prey a distance from the body;
 Elastic/flexible to be easily flicked out and stretched into mouth with prey to swallow
 Sticky to trap prey and prevent it to get loose; attached to anterior tip of the lower jaw so easily
flicked out/to reach out far from the body
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
Parts of alimentary canal and their characteristics

THE OESOPHAGUS
This is a narrow tubular long structure with thin elastic wall; its inner lining is smooth and ciliated for
easy swallowing of food.

Adaptations of gullet to its function

 It has smooth inner lining for easy passage of food materials.
 It has thin and elastic walls to extend easily to allow passage of large prey.
 It has narrow lumen for easy swallowing of food.
STOMACH:

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 It is elongated and thin walled

 Internally, it is folded longitudinally, both to allow distention and increase the surface area for
secretion of gastric juice /digestion.
 Posteriorly, a slight constriction indicates the position of the pyloric sphincter and marks the end
of the stomach. This controls the exit of food from the stomach.
 Anteriorly, the constriction that controls the entry of food into the stomach is called a cardiac
sphincter.
THE ILEUM
It is very long, coiled, narrow, and tubular and made up of thin walls. It has numerous blood capillaries
which is a branch of hepatic portal vein .ileum is used for digestion and absorption of digested food. It is
adapted to its function by having;
 Narrow lumen for easy absorption by reducing diffusion distance.
 Numerous capillaries to increase the surface area for absorption of digested food.
 Thin wall to easy absorption of digested food.
 Coiled and long tube to increase the surface area for digestion and absorption of digested food.

THE RECTUM
It is a short, thick walled, enlarged and wide tubular organ found between the ileum and the cloaca; it is
used for storage of wastes /faeces/unwanted materials prior to elimination .contraction of its walls
causes egestion of the wastes.
THE HEAD and THORACIC REGION
The toad lacks the neck. Thus there is no clear cut line between the thoracic and the head regions.
However the head region starts from the jaws upwards.
The vessels draining the head region are
Sinus venosus, anterior venacava, innominate vein, internal jugular vein draining the brain, eye and
dorsal side of the head.
External jugular vein receives from lingual vein draining the tongue & hyoid and mandibular vein
draining the lower jaw.

THE
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VESSELS THAT DRAIN THE THORACIC REGION ARE;

Pulmonary vein draining the lungs, sinus venosus supplying the heart, anterior venacava Innominate
vein, subscapular vein draining the dorsal surface of the shoulders, Subclavian vein, brachial vein
draining the fore arm and musculo-cutaneous vein draining the skin and muscles of the body wall.

THE VESSELS SUPPLYING THE HEAD REGION ARE;

Truncus arteriosus, carotid arch, lingual artery/external carotid artery, the carotid labyrinth, and
internal carotid artery
The lingual artery/external carotid artery: supplies blood to the tongue and the lower jaw and hyoid.
The internal carotid artery :supplies the upper floor of the mouth and brain

NOTE: The carotid labyrinth where the internal carotid artery joins the lingual artery

The vessels supplying the thoracic region are;

Truncus arteriosus ,pulmo-cutaneous arch, pulmonary artery supplying the lungs ,cutaneous artery
supplying the skin, systemic arch, and subclavian artery supplying the fore arm.

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THE TRUNK REGION

Its composed of the thoracic region and abdominal region
I)THE THORACIC REGION( Upper trunk)

it mainly contains the heart and the lungs and the vessels found with the region. The vessels with in
thoracic region are both veins that drain the region and the arteries that supply the region. The thoracic
region lacks a diaphragm and rib cage that would separate it from the abdominal and the head regions.
Thus the lungs which are found in thoracic region overlaps with the liver lobes which are found in
abdominal region

II)THE ABDOMINAL REGION (lower trunk)

The gullet, stomach and the duodenum are found on the left side of the animals (toad) while the ileum
belong to no particular side. The rectum is the middle way but more suited to the right of the animal.
The associated organs of the alimentary canal on the left side are the pancreas, and the left ovary,
oviduct, ovisac and left liver lobe.

Other organs that are found on the left side of thoracic and abdominal region which are not part of the
digestive system are the spleen, left kidneys, testis, urethra, vesicular seminalis, ovary, oviduct, ovisac
and left lung.

Stretch the stomach and pin it to the left of the animal without tearing the pancreas and mesentery of
the duodenum. Loosen the ileum and rectum by cutting their mesentery.

Stretch the ileum and pin it to the left of the animal .open pelvis girdle, clear off unnecessary materials
to expose the features, draw and label the dissection.

VESSELS DRAINING THE ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ASSOCIATED ORGANS

Alimentary canal is drained by hepatic portal vein which branches into

 Gastro-duodenal vein which further divide into
 Gastric vein draining the stomach, and
 Duodenal vein draining duodenum. Hepatic portal vein further gives another branch of
Mesenteric vein which divides to form
 Intestinal veins (anterior mesenteric vein) draining the ileum.
 splenic vein draining the spleen, and
 Rectal vein(posterior mesenteric vein draining the rectum.

Note: spleen is not an associated organ with the alimentary canal

The hepatic portal vein divides into two branches, each of them joining a liver lobe.

The liver lobes are drained by the hepatic vein which joins the posterior vena cava through which blood
enters the heart.

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ABDOMINAL REGION

It stretches from the liver down to the bladder. The liver and bladder and any other many organs
between them are found in the abdominal region and hence are called abdominal features.

NB: The hepatic portal vein has other branches which do not drain the digestive system, the splenic vein
draining the spleen and anterior abdominal vein which drains the thighs intestinal vein of hepatic portal
vein divided into numerous small capillaries which are spread along the long ileum to increase surface
area for absorption of digested food.

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EXCRETORY SYSTEM

This is the system of organs that moves metabolic waste materials from the body. it consists of the
following organs or features .the kidney, lungs, ureter (wolffian duct), bladder and cloaca which is
exposed when the pelvic girdle is bisected.

The enlarged and elongated kidney filters the wastes from the blood to form urine. Urine flows through
the long, tubular and thin ureter then into the bladder .The bladder which is membranous, broad and
bilobed allows temporary storage of urine before it passes into the cloaca .Then eliminated from the
body through the cloaca opening/aperture which is moist, narrow and constricted.

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VESSELS SUPPLYING ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ASSOCIATED ORGANS

The main artery supplying the alimentary canal is the systemic artery which branches into
 Coeliaco-mesenteric artery which future divides into coeliac and mesenteric arteries.

The coeliac artery divides into

 Hepatic artery supplying the liver lobe, gastro-duodenal artery that further divides into the
 Gastric artery supplying the stomach, and
 Duodenal artery supplying duodenum.

Mesenteric artery divides into

 splenic artery supplying the spleen,
 anterior mesenteric artery supplying to most of the intestines and
 Posterior mesenteric arteries serving the lower intestine and the rectum.

NB. The splenic artery supplies the spleen which has no digestive function .thus should not be included
in the drawing.

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
This is the organ used for sexual reproduction.The male reproductive system involves the testes, vasa
efferentia, kidney, ureter, vesicula seminalis and cloaca.

The ovoid, cream testes produce the gametes which pass through the vasa efferentia to the kidney
tubules, the kidney tubules empty the gametes into the ureter then get stored in the vesicula seminalis
until breeding occurs.

NB: Some of the organs are used for excretion and reproduction hence they in both systems.
NB: The urinary ducts are separated from the reproductive system except the cloaca.
A combination of the reproductive and excretory systems forms urinogenital system.

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The female reproductive system is made up of the ovaries, oviducts/fallopian tube (mullerian ducts)
ovisac and cloaca. Ovisacs are swellings at the posterior end of the oviducts

The membranous numerous flattened and irregularly lobed ovaries produce the ova .Thin long and
coiled oviducts for passage for the ova to exterior.

THE HIND LIMBS /THIGHS

The left and right hind limbs have the same vessels or blood circulation. They are drained by the outer
femoral and inner sciatic veins which are cross connected by sciatic loop.
The femoral and sciatic veins join just inside the abdominal cavity to form renal portal vein which joins
the kidney.

Another alternative route is a branch of the femoral veins, the pelvic veins, which join to form anterior
abdominal vein. This passes forward in the mid line of the body just beneath the skin to join the hepatic
portal vein immediately before its entry to the liver.

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THE CLOACA
It has narrow lumen, muscular elastic wall, smooth inner lining, moist and constricted cloaca opening
/aperture.
Cloaca opening is dorsal laterally located at the posterior end of the middle line of the body trunk.

Adaptations of the cloacal opening to its function

 It has elastic muscular wall to allow passage of large materials.
 It has smooth inner lining for easy passage of materials.
 It is tubular to allow passage materials.
 Its open is narrow to regulate egestion.
 Its opening is constricted /folded to allow egestion of a large size.
 Its opening is moist for easy egestion

BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE KIDNEY GENITALS AND HIND LIMBS

From the dorsal aorta, small branches, the renal arteries pass to the kidney, paired genital
arteries/gonadial arteries pass to the reproductive organs from the dorsal aorta or the most anterior
pair of renal artery.

Hind limbs are supplied by the iliac arteries,which are branches of dorsal aorta which eventually pass
into the hind limbs where they divide into the femoral and the sciatic arteries

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THE BODY CAVITIES

The body cavities of the toad are not distinctively separated .this leads to extending of some organs
from one cavity to another. The toad is divided into four body regions the head, thoracic, abdominal
and pelvic region.

The pelvic region: This region mainly contains the pelvic activity containing the cloaca.
The region also contains vessels like the pelvic veins which fuse to form the anterior abdominal vein
which pours blood from the thighs into the hepatic portal vein. it is not a so clear a region.

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THE VENTRAL BRANCHES OF THE SPINAL NERVES AND SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

It consists of the main spinal cord with 10 nerve fibres projecting from either of it. the first nerve fiber,
hypoglossal nerve, is connected to the head .the next two nerves are found in thoracic region (thoracic
nerves).the next three are found in the abdominal region (abdominal nerves).the last four nerves
connect to the hind limbs.

They join in the thigh to form sciatic plexus from which emerge the outer main sciatic nerve and inner
small cuccygeal nerve .all the spinal nerves are connected to the sympathetic cord from the brains at
the sympathetic ganglia by the loop called Ramus communicans

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THE RAT
CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Phylum Class Order

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Rodentia

Family Genus Species

Muridae Rattus rattus norvegicus (Albino rat)

THE RAT IS;

An animal (kingdom animalia) due to the following reasons
 It has structures like the eyes for sight
 It has a mouth for feeding
 it has locomotory structures, the limbs for movement from one place to another.

A chordate (phylum chordata) due to the following reasons

 It has incisor teeth (bones)
 It has pentadactyl limbs(five digited limb).
 It has post anal tail.

A mammal (class mammalia) due to the following reasons

 Possesses external ear lobes /pinnae
 Body covered by fur /skin is covered with hairs
 Possesses external genitalia, like vaginal opening (vulva), clitoris and scrotal sac and prepuce
opening for males.
 Possession of nipples /teats which bear outlets of mammary glands.
Rodentia: limbs with digits having claws which are courved and pointed.
Habitat: Teresterial environment in burrows
Internal mammalian features
 Possession of heterodont teeth which is a set of different type of teeth.
 Possession of the diaphragm which is an internal structure
 Possession of a diaphragm separating the body cavity into two i.e. thoracic cavity carrying the
heart and lungs and abdominal cavity containing the intestines, and other organs.
 Dental formula ( I 1/1 , C 0/0 , Pm 0/0, M 3/3)

Adaptations of the rat to survive in its habitat

 Its external ears large and curved which eases trapping of sound waves for easy hearing and to
increase its sensitivity to sound.
 Eyes are dorsal-laterally located midway on the head for wide vision/to increase the field of
view.
 Narrow opening for easy smelling and breathing thus are sensitive smell.
 Whiskers/vibrissae/ long hairs stiff in nature makes it easy to detect the diameter of the burrow.
 Mouth ventrally located for easy ingestion of food materials.
 Tail is long and tapers anteriorly, solid /hard, long and flexible for defense by whipping /lashing
the enemy.

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 Body covered with Fur to insulate against heat loss for temperature regulations(fur being poor
conductor of heat/conserve heat.
 Pointed claws for firm grip/support/easy holding of food/digging tunnels/burrows/escape
 predation
 The protruding incisors which are sharp top/ chisel shaped, long hard and curved in wards for
easy cutting of food and for defense by biting the enemy.

THE HEAD

It is tapering anteriorly with a cone shape .it is loosely attached to the body trunk by a neck.
The tapering head provides a streamlined shape for easy entrance into the burrows or to reduce air
resistance for easy locomotion .it has little fur to reduce insulation of the sensory organs in the animal’s
head. Head tapers towards snout to ease entry into the burrows

Structures on the head

The head has various features which include the Pinnae (external ears), eyes, external Nares (nostrils),
mouth, and vibrissae (whiskers.)

THE PINNAE
 It is dorsal –laterally locate at the posterior end of the head and posterior to the eye flexibly
attached to the end and expanded out ward(funnel shaped).its funnel shape eases trapping of
sound waves for easy hearing and to increase its sensitivity to sound .
 It has little fur to encourage heat loss
 They are one pair.
 Its many blood capillaries are close to inner surface to encourage heat loss

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THE EYES
 They are dorsal-laterally located midway on the head for wide vision/to increase the field of
view
 They are one pair and are sensitive to light.
 They are small and bead–shaped with hairy eyelids and nictitating membrane which is
transparent located in the interior corner of the eye.
 It is anterior to the external ears.

THE EXTERNAL NARES /NOSTRILS

They are narrow opening, one pair, curved, surrounded by smooth skin and anteriorly located on the
head. Its location is for easy smelling and breathing thus are sensitive smell.small opening for breathing.

THE MOUTH/BUCCAL CAVITY

The tongue, which

 Broad /flat to increase the surface area for tasting and rolling food.
 Long to roll food easily for swallowing
 Flappy (flat) and flexible for easy rolling of the food.
 It has a large base to increase surface area for firm attachment.

MOUTH
 It is ventrally located on anterior end of the head below the nostrils for easy ingestion of food
materials.
 It is cone shaped with the sides of upper lips folded inside into diastema for easy nibbling.The
upper lip also has a cleft to expose the incisors for easy nibbling/gnawing.
 The rugae (folds /ridges) of hard plate, for gripping food during grinding.
 Soft plate, which is smooth for easy swallowing

ARRANGEMENT OF TEETH AND ADAPTATIONS

 A pair of incisors at front of both upper and lower jaws while three pairs of molars at the back of
the upper and lower jaw. Molars ,hard, broad top surface, rough top surface big sized:
 The protruding incisors which are sharp top/ chisel shaped, long, hard and curved in wards for
easy gripping or cutting of food and for defense against predation by biting the enemy.
 Incisors are found at the anterior end of the jaws to ease cutting/ nibbling of food. Molars at
back to exert maximum force for chewing food.
 Broad top of molars provide a large surface area for chewing food /Flat topped molars, with
cusps and ridge to increase the surface area for grinding food.
 Hard to cut food/chew food

THE VIBRISSAE/WHISKERS
These are many bristle/stiff, long hairs arranged in rows along the sides of the anterior end of the head.
The length and brittle nature of whiskers makes it easy to detect the diameter of the burrow. Thus they
make the animal sensitive to the slightest touch.
Adaptation
Long stiff hair for sensitivity of the environment especially when estimating the size of the burrow.

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THE TRUNK( Thorax and abdominal region)

The short neck attaches the head to the trunk. Structures found on the trunk, include the limbs, tail and
external sex features /genital.

THE LIMBS
The rat has two pairs of limbs, a pair of fore limbs and a pair of hind limbs.
The limbs jointed for flexibility to generate propulsive force during locomotion.

THE FORE LIMBS HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS

 They are short and stout to absorb shock on landing
 They are less muscular
 They have four well developed digits with the fifth greatly reduce to a small stub.
 They have hairless sole with many pads (digital and foot pads) to reduce noise making when
moving for easy escape.
 They have curved, hard, elongated and pointed claws for defense by scratching the enemy and
digging burrows for protection or breeding. Claws are also used for firm gripping on the rough
surface during locomotion.

THE HIND LIMBS HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS

 They are long muscular for fast and sudden movement to escape enemies.
 They have curved, hard, elongated and pointed claws for defense, digging burrows and for firm
gripping on the rough surface.
 They have hairless sole with many pads (digital and foot pads)
The fore and hind limbs share many features in common .they both have claws, smooth, sole,
digits/toes, sole and digital pads and jointed.

ADAPTATIONS OF THE TOES/digits

 Jointed digits for flexibility for grip during motion
 Digits have soft , swellings of sole pads that reduce the noise during locomotion for easy escape
of predation.
 Digits with claws are long, curved and pointed for digging burrows/for defence against
predation/easy holding of food.
 Five digits of hind foot that are well developed and spread out for stability and support.

Differences between fore and hind limbs

Fore limb Hind limb
Has shorter digits/toes Has longer digits/toes
It has four well developed digits It has five well developed digits
The first digit is reduced with a small nail The first digit is fully developed
Less muscular More muscular/much thicker
Shorter sole Longer sole

The use of joints in the limbs is to increase their flexibility

The length of the hind limb doubles that of the fore limb i.e. The ratio of the fore to hind limb is 1:2 to
generate propulsion force during locomotion for fast movement.
This great length together with its muscular nature gives a rat a greater forward force during darting-
hopping movement.
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The fore and hind feet have many structures in common. Both feet have digits, sole and digital pads,
hairless sole and claws.

However the hind foot has five digits while the fore one has four well developed digits.
The hind foot also has longer sole than the fore foot.

THE TAIL:

It is attached to the posterior end of the body trunk. The tail is long, solid /hard, long and flexible and
tapers posteriorly to make it flexible so as to drive away parasites like fleas.

Adapattions of the tail to ensure survival of the animal in its habitat

 The tail is long, to provide balance of the body during locomotion and
chasing away disturbing organisms.
 Tapers towards its end to reduce its weight/reduce resitance during
its movement.
 Having rows of scales around, which are closely packed for protection
against physical injuries and for reducing water loss/prevent
desiccation?
 It length equals to the rest of the body for support /balance
/maintain raised when moving or for defense while whipping the enemy at the distance.
 Its segmented for flexibility for defense by whipping /lashing the enemy.
 It has short, stiff hair emerging from between the scale to encourage heat loss.
 Many scales which are anteriorly attached and overlaps posterior to allow heat loss.

NB: Tail being half the length of the whole body helps to give support/balance/maintain raised
head/drive away other organisms/predators/defence

Qn. Describe the attachment and pattern of arrangement of the scales

The scales: anterior end attached, posterior end free; arranged close to each other, anterior scales
overlaps posterior scales in rows and scales next row lie in between those in previous row.

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Adaptation
 Overlapping scales to insulate against heat loss/temperature regulation
 Close to each other for protection against mechanical injury
 Close to each other to conserve water

SEX IDENTIFICATION

CHARACTERISTIC OF FEMALES;
 Have vulva/genital aperture on the ventral side.
 Have the small projection, the clitoris on the ventral side immediately above the vulva.
 Have two rows of teats /nipples on the ventral side of abdominal region, which bear outlets
mammary glands.
THE VULVA in adult rats is open, smooth, oval/circular/round opening. It is found in the middle cross
length between the hind limbs on the ventral side. It is moist and open for easy passage of materials. It
is close and posterior the clitoris which is a small projection/protrusion; solid; cylindrical; with a small
opening at the tip and short scanty hair/fur.

The clitoris is elongated,pointed, tapering and opeing at tip close and anterior to the vulva.
The nipples are elongated, pointed, smooth, six pairs on ventral side of the thorax and abdomen. Three
pairs are thoracic, one is abdominal and two inguinal (found in groin region).The teats are at the same
distance from the longitudinal mid-line of the ventral side. Nipple; small projection; short; cylindrical;
smooth; and solid

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MALE

 Have a projection of prepuce covering the penis.

 Have the scrotal sacs protecting the testes.
 The dorso-posterior end is round to expanded testes on the ventral side.

PENIS is elongated/long, , solid ,covered by a loose sheath/prepuce at the tip which is cylindrical, with
scanty hair, slit like aperture at the tip.
Scrotal sacs/scrotum, swollen, sac like, elongated, with short scanty hair and two swellings with a
depression in the middle
The scrotal sacs are enlarged /dilated and elongated to accommodate large testes.
Drawing showing ventral view of Male and Female posterior region and abdominal surface

GENERAL ADAPTATIONS OF A RAT TO SURVIVE IN ITS ENVIRONMENT

 Has thick fur to reduce water loss /conserve heart /temperature regulation.
 Large expanded external ears for increased surface area for easy hearing /trapping sound
waves.
 Has long, and bristle whiskers/vibrissae for increased sensitivity to stimuli of touch /detecting
the size of burrow.
 Has elongated, pointed claws for firm gripping on the rough surface or for digging burrows
/tunnels or for holding food of for defense.
 Has dorso–laterally located eyes for wide vision.
 Has long tail for balancing during movement or for defense at along distance.
 Has two pairs of muscular limbs foe support or for locomotion.
 Have narrow open nostrils for easy breathing or for easy smelling.
 Have many overlapping scales on the tail to reduce desiccation.
 Have swellings of sole pads to reduce noise making when moving for easy escape.
 Has streamlined and flexible body to easily enter the burrow.
BODY SYSTEMS

The body systems are exposed to study by opening internal cavities .before the internal cavities are
opened, the skin has to be removed first by using a blank knife scissors.
The visible structures exposed on the body wall by removing the skin are called superficial structures
like the neck glands, masseter (jaw) muscles, pectoral muscles, neck muscles, shoulder muscles,

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intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles and cutaneous nerves radiating from the arm pits ,lymph nodes
in the arm pits, thigh muscles ,preputial glands ,femoral nerves ,and femoral vein.
If it is a female, thoracic abdominal and inguinal mammary glands are exposed .for the male the scrotal
sacs are exposed.
NB: The incisor teeth and the tongue are not superficial because are not exposed by removing the skin
but by the opened mouth.

THE NECK GLANDS

These include four types of glands which exist in pairs i.e. infra –orbital lachrymal gland, lymph nodes,
parotid gland, and sub-maxillary gland; all are salivary glands except the lymph nodes.
Infra-orbital lachrymal glands which are for immunity and tear secretion respectively. Infra-orbital
lachrymal and sub-maxillary are enlarged and muscular.
The parotid gland is spread and membranous and its secretion, the tears, is voided/empted into the
mouth cavity through the duct seen on the body surface.
The lymph nodes are small bean shaped and exist in two pairs.

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THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TRACHEA:
It is cartilaginous, rigid, ringed, hollow /open /tubular, and cylindrical. It is used as the passage for gases;
it is adapted to its function by.
 Having rings for cartilage to keep it open for easy passage of gases.
 Being hollow to allow ventilation.
 Having muscle connection between the cartilage for flexibility.

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LUNGS
It is spongy, pink in colour and consists of numerous air sac.
it is adapted to its function by;
 Being spongy to allow easy distention with more air.
 Pink colour indicates a rich supply of capillaries that offer a large surface area for gaseous
exchange.
 Numerous air sacs increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.

THE BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

It contains of arterial and venous systems. Arterial system consists of vessels that supply the body
tissues and are called arteries. Venous system consists of vessels draining the body tissues back to the
heart.

VESSELS SUPPLYING THE THORACIC, NECK AND HEAD REGIONS

The aorta/aortic arch from ventricle of the, heart branches into three arteries, i.e. the innominate
artery on the right, left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery.

Innominate artery divides into the right subclavian artery and right common carotid artery.
The subclavian artery turns into the right axillary artery after giving off intercostal and vertebral artery.

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The axillary artery divides into brachial artery supplying the arm and cervical arteries supplying the neck
muscles and the neck vertebrae.

The right common carotid artery divides into the internal carotid artery and external carotid artery.
The internal carotid artery supplies the brain and the deep region of the head and external carotid artery
supplies the external parts of head.

The left common carotid artery extends directly from the aortic Arch and then forks into internal
carotid artery and external carotid artery.
The left subclavian artery divides like the right subclavian artery which serves the fore arm via the
brachial and axillary artery.

The aortic arch continues down beneath the left anterior vena cava to supply the organs posterior to the
heart .it also gives off numerous intercostal arteries that supply the intercostals muscles.
From the right ventricle, arises pulmonary artery which supplies the lungs.

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The vessels supplying the thoracic region are; aorta, innominate artery, subclavian arteries, vertebral
arteries, and cervical arteries.
The right and left common carotid arteries divide into internal and external carotid arteries that supply
the head
THE BLOOD VESSELS THAT DRAIN THE THORACIC, NECK REGIONS, AND HEAD REGION

The main large one vessel, the vena cava, draining into the right atrium, divided into three vessels.
 The posterior vena cava draining organs posterior to the heart.
 The right anterior vena cava draining the right side of the thoracic, neck and head regions.
 The left anterior vena draining the left thoracic, neck and head regions.

The vessels draining thoracic region are; posterior vena cava, pulmonary vein, left and right anterior
vena cava, subclavian veins, axillary veins, and cephalic veins and Azygos vein.

The cephalic vein drains the arm and shoulder region;

The axillary vein drains the arm through brachial vein and the arm pit, and
The Azygos vein occurs on the left side of the thorax only and draws blood from both sides of thorax.

The vessels draining the neck region are; left and right anterior vena cava, subclavian veins external
jugular veins, and internal jugular veins.

Posterior facial vein and anterior facial vein drain blood from the head, the anterior facial veins drains
blood from the internal parts of head and posterior facial vein drains blood from the external parts of
the head.

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THE NERVES OF THE NECK REGION

 The vagus nerve, which is the thickest nerve and branches into anterior laryngeal branch,
pharyngeal nerve and Recurrent laryngeal nerve
 The Recurrent laryngeal Nerve It leaves the main line of the vagus near the right subclavian
artery
 Cervical sympathetic nerve ,lies close the common carotid artery,it has oval swellings like
anterior cervical ganglion found median to the vagus nerve,middle cervical ganglion and
posterior cervical ganglion(which is between the second and third ribs and posterior to the
subclavian artery.

THE HEART AND its MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS

Position and shape:

The heart lies ventrally in the thorax; it is pear shaped, with the apex posterior and tilted to the left and
the base, anterior giving way to the origin of the great vessels.

The heart is divided into four chambers with the ventricles appearing much larger than auricles because
of their thick muscular walls that provide a strong force in pumping blood.

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The common body systems studied after opening the animal are the, digestive system, circulatory
system, reproductive system and excretory system.

THE ABDOMINAL VISCERAL STRUCTURES IN UNDISTURBED STATE

This consists of the alimentary canal and its associated organs.

The alimentary canal:
This shows a greater differentiation into regions than that of lower vertebrates. It consists of the,
oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, caecum, colon and rectum.

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THE OESOPHAGUS

It is a long tube that leads through the neck and thorax to the stomach .it is muscular with smooth inner
lining .the smooth lining and contraction of muscular wall ease swallowing .longitudinal folds close the
lumen except when swallowing .at the distal end, the muscles constrict to form cardiac sphincter that
control flow of food into stomach .

THE STOMACH:
It is an enlarged ovoid sac lying transversely a cross the abdomen beneath the diaphragm which
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal ,diaphragm is membranous, broad elastic ,and thin
(transparent ).the stomach is used as;
 A temporary store of food, giving chance for action of enzymes.
 A site of digestion of food.
 A site of absorption of digested food.

The inner lining of the pylorus stomach is folded and smooth .the folds increase the surface area foe
digestion and absorption of digested food. The folds also allow extension of the stomach to increase
storage. The wall of the pylorus stomach is thick /opaque. The lining of cardiac stomach is smooth, and
not folded .the wall of the cardiac stomach is thin and transparent.

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The anterior end constricts into pyloric sphincter that control empting of chyme.
The stomach wall has many blood capillaries to increase the surface area for absorption of digested
food.

DUODENUM
It is a short tubular feature which bends into a V shape. Between its bend lies a membranous pancreas.
The function of the duodenum is used for digestion and absorption of digested food.
Bile ducts from the gall bladder and pancreatic ducts from pancreas open into the duodenum to release
bile and pancreatic juices that enhance digestion of Food.

ILEUM
It is a very long greatly coiled tubular organ made up of thin wall. It is greatly attached to by numerous
blood capillaries which are tributaries of hepatic portal vein.
It is used for digestion and absorption of digested food. It is adapted to its function by;
 Having numerous blood capillaries to increase surface area for absorption of digested food.
 Having thin wall to reduce diffusion distance of digested food into capillaries.
 Being very long and coiled to increase surface area for digestion and absorption of digested
food.
Between the ileum mesentery and colon but so close and along the colon, lays a chain of seven lymph
nodes.

CAECUM AND APPENDIX is an extension of the caecum which is between the ileum and the colon.
Both are enlarged and are used for digestion and absorption of food mainly the cellulose.
They contain bacteria that releases cellulase enzyme that can digest cellulose.

COLON
It is short and enlarged .it is used for storage of wastes .it also allows absorption of water i.e. enlarged to
increase storage of wastes .it bears capillaries for faster water absorption .

RECTUM
It stores wastes (unwanted materials) and also allows absorption of water to increase water
conservation .contraction of rectal muscles removes unwanted materials (faeces) from the body.

GLANDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ALIMENTERY CANAL:

THE LIVER
It is the largest gland in the body .it has many functions in the body ,its digestive function is the
production of the bile contains bile salts that emulsify fats .it also contains sodium hydrogen carbonates
which provide a suitable medium for enzyme activity. It is divided into four (4) lobes, which include two
on the right, one in the centre, and one on the left.

THE PANCREAS
This is endocrine and exocrine organ that appears as small –scattered masses of membranous pink
tissue. In the mesentery, between the loops of duodenum, its ducts open into the duodenum, secreting
pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes that digest food, together with bicarbonate ions that make the
PH suitable for enzymes activity.

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BLOOD VESSELS SUPPLYING THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

The alimentary canal is

supplied by aorta which
branches into the Coeliac
artery that in turn divided into
hepatic artery that splits into
two vessels, one supply the
liver and the other supply the
pancreas, duodenum and
pyloric stomach.
The middle branch of the
coeliac artery called lienal
artery divided into two to
supply the pylorus stomach
and the spleen.
The upper branch of the
coeliac artery called the
gastric artery supplies the
cardiac Stomach.

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NOTE:
The branch of the hepatic artery that supplies the liver passes beneath gastric and lienal artery
Anterior mesenteric artery which in turn divides into numerous capillaries supplying the duodenum, the
ileum and the caecum
Posterior mesenteric artery which supplies the colon and rectum

BLOOD VESSELS DRAINING THE ALIMENTARY CANAL and ASSOCIATED ORGANS

The alimentary canal is drained by main one large vein called hepatic portal vein which drains blood
from the alimentary canal into the liver. Hepatic portal vein branches into;
 Pyloric vein which divides into gastric vein draining the stomach, anterior pancreatico-duodenal
vein draining the pancreas and the anterior part of the duodenum.
 Lienal vein draining the cardiac stomach and the spleen.
 Posterior mesenteric vein that drains the posterior colon and rectum.
 Posterior pancreatico-duodenal vein that drains the pancreas and the posterior part the
duodenum.
 Anterior mesenteric vein draining the ileum, caecum and the anterior part of the duodenum.

Anterior mesenteric vein divides into numerous small capillaries embedded in the mesentery.
The numerous capillaries attached to the ileum increase the surface area for absorption of digested
food.

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THE SOLAR PLEXUS

it lies posterior to the coeliac artery on the ventral surface of the posterior venacava

FEMALE URINOGENITAL SYSTEM

 Utero-ovarian artery and vein:-usually arise from the left renal artery and vein Which forks into
the short Ovarian artery supplying the Ovary; and the longer uterine artery that supplies the
uterus
 Pudendal vessel: To the pubic area of the pelvis and external genital

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MALE URINOGENITAL SYSTEM

1. Spermatic artery/Testicular artery; Leaves the aorta near the left renal artery and supply’s blood to
the testes while Spermatic vein forms an extensive capillary mass around the spermatic artery to drain
the testes

2. Vasa deferentsia.recieves sperms from the Cauda epididymis and Caput epididymis

3. Seminal vesicle: which are curved structures closely associate with connective tissue called Coagulating
glands

4. Penis: enclosed by in a sheath of skin, the prepuce. Near the tip of the penis are the preputial glands

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THE VASCULAR SUPPLY TO THE POSTERIOR REGION OF THE BODY

 Ilio-lumbar artery and vein;-serving the lumbar muscles and adjacent fat deposits

The dorsal aorta divides terminally into two branches, the common iliac artery which gives several
branches to supply organs in the groin and hind limb on the respective side the branches include;

 Vesical artery and vein-Serve the bladder and the median part of the reproductive system.
 Internal iliac /hypogastric artery and vein- To the muscles of dorsal region of the pelvis
 The external iliac artery
 Haemorrhoidal artery and vein: To the lower rectum and anal region
 Pudendal artery and vein,-To the pubic area of the pelvis and external genitalia.
 Epigastric artery and vein: Serving the posterior muscles of abdomen.
 Femoral artery and vein, which supplies the outer part of the limb (thigh) and continues as
politely artery to supply the leg

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GUIDING QUESTIONS ABOUT DISSECTION

Practical 1
You are provided with freshly killed specimen E (toad).
a) Examine the skin in the trunk region from the dorsal and ventral side
i) State three differences observed
Dorsal side Ventral side
1

b) Suggest explanations for the observed differences in a)i) above. (03mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………

…………………………………….…..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
C) Pin the specimen with its back on the board; dissect to clearly display the structures of the roof of the
buccal cavity. Draw ad label. (10 marks)

d) By further dissection, display the blood vessels that carry blood

i) To the parts of the alimentary canal located in the left of the abdomen plus the associated structures
and from the hind limbs and kidneys back to the heart.
Draw and label with the heart deflected anteriorly (24mks)

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Practical 2
You are provided with specimens K (cockroach)
a) Examine the specimen and name the external features which are characteristic of the class to which
the specimen belongs (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………
b) From your observation of the external features, state with reasons the sex of the specimen.
(2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………….……
c) Place the specimen ventral side upper most .draw and label the structures on the end of the
abdomen. (5mks)

d) Using a hand lens examine one antenna and draw .do not label. (2mks)

e) Place the specimen dorsal side uppermost and dissect to expose the structures within the abdominal
and thoracic cavity.
i) Displace the structures to display the salivary glands on the left of specimen.
ii) Displace the alimentary canal to the right of the specimen. Remove all unnecessary tissue to display
all the parts of the alimentary canal and the structures on the ventral cuticle.
Draw and label. (24mks)

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Practical 3
You are provided with specimens R (cockroach) which is fleshy killed.
a) Examine the antennae and describe how they are adapted to their function. (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
i) Carefully cut off the whole left maxilla. Observe using a hand lens. Draw and label. (6mks)

ii) Give three adaptations of maxilla to its functions. (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b i) place the specimen dorsal side uppermost .cut along one lateral line of the specimen to display the
heart .draw and label the circulatory system (8mks)

ii) Then proceed to display the structures responsible for food storage and digestion and displaced to
your left side. Draw and label.

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c) Remove both the crop and the gizzard related to the function of the two organs? (4mks)
i) Describe the appearance of the inner surface of:

Crop…………………………………………………………………………….……………………………….……………………………..

Gizzard………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………….…………
ii) How are the inner surface of the crop and gizzard related to the functions of the two organs? (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………..………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………..……

Practical 4
You are provided with specimen K (toad) which is fleshly killed.
a) Examine the head of the animal provided. Describe the shape of the head and show how the shape
relates to the mode of life of the animal. (2mks)
i) Description of the shape.
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Relationship between shape of the head and mode of the life of the animal.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………….
b) Lay and pin the animal on its back. Turn the board so that the head faces you. Insert one blade of the
scissor into the mouth this side and cut through the jaws up to the level of the fore limbs .continue
dissecting to display the oesophagus
i) Describe the structure of the esophagus. (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) Relate the structure of the esophagus to its main function.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………

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c) Examine the tongue.

i) Draw the tongue in ventral view when fully stretched and label. (7mks)

ii) Mention three adaptations of the tongue for feeding (3mks)

d) i) Dissect the specimens and take the routes of blood flow from the heart to the alimentary canal and
associated organs .draw and label fully. (23mks)

ii) By further dissect display and blood circulation in the left thigh and foot. (Observe the foot using a
hand lens) make labeled drawing to show the blood network in the two regions. (7mks)

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Practical 5
You are provided with a fleshy killed specimen labeled R (rat).
a) Study the external features of the specimen and list three observable features that enable the
specimen to colonize land. (3mks)
i)……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………

ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..

iii)…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………..………………
b) i) measure the length of the tail and that of the tail plus the rest of the body.
Express your results as ratio of;
Tail: rest of the body (1mk)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….

ii) Suggest the significance of the ratio in the life of the animal. (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C i) Dissect the specimen to clearly display the structures lying posteriorly to the diaphragm without
displacing organs .Draw and label your dissection. (16mks)

ii) Dissect the specimen further to display the blood vessels that drain blood from the thigh of the left
hind limb and kidney back to the heart .draw and label. (15mks)

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Practical 6
You are provided with specimen T (rat). Carry out the dissection of the specimen the following
procedure.
Pin the animal with ventral side uppermost .remove the skin of the thoracic region including the neck
.lift the xiphoid cartilage and cut along the lower edge of the rib cage. The tie the xiphoid cartilage .pull
it back and pin it down .cut along the sidewall of the thorax on both sides to remove the rib cage.
i) Draw the thoracic region without displaying any organ and label fully. (7mks)

ii) Locate the trachea and examine it. Describe its structure.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………
b) Now dissect the specimen further into the neck to display the glands, organs and their accessory
structure that can be seen from the ventral side of the neck region, anterior to the forelimb.
i) Make an accurate, well labeled drawing of the dissection.

ii) Briefly state the function of each of the structures you have labeled in(b)(i) above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
Practical 7
You are provided with specimen Q (Toad) which is a fleshly killed animal
i) Examine the head and describe its shape. (011/2 mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..…………………………
ii) Examine the head of the specimen and draw and label the dorsal view of the anterior part of the head
to show the structures for sensitivity. (05 mks)

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iii) Measures the length of the fore and hind limbs and record your results in table 1 below.
(02mk)
Length in mm Fore limb Hind limb

Ratio
vi) State the significance of the ratio. (01mk)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
v) Examine the hind limb and state three ways it is adapted for the survival of the specimen in its
habitat. (03mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Dissect the specimen to expose the heart. Turn the heart over to display the main blood vessels
i) Returning blood from the chest region to the heart
ii) Supplying the structures for absorption of nutrients and excretory organs. Draw and label.
(27marks)

d) Dissect the animal to display the heart and associated blood vessels that supply blood to the
forelimbs, head region and lungs. Draw and label the heart and the associated vessels on one side of
your dissection. (20mark)

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Practical 8
You are provided with specimen K(rat) which is freshly killed.
a) i) identify the sex of the specimen. (01mk)
…………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………..…………………………
ii) Describe the structures you used to determine the sex of the specimen. (02mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………..………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Cut out the alimentary canal then continue to dissect to display the vessels that drain blood from the
upper parts of the hind limbs and abdominal region, back to the heart. Draw and label the vessels on the
left hand side of the specimen excluding the heart. (20 mks)

Practical 9
You are provided with a freshly killed specimen K (cockroach).Examine the specimen using a hand lens
and answer the following questions;-
a) State two external features in each case; classify the specimen into two named groups
Class …………………………………………………………..………………………………….……………………..………….……….
Reasons (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………..…………………..…………………

Order ……………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….………………….
Reasons
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….……………

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b) i) state three observable structures the specimen uses for sensitivity . (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………….………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………….
ii) For each of the structures stated above give two adaptations to function. (6mks)
Structure: 1
1………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………….

2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….
Structure 2:
1…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….

2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Structure 3:
1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………….
c) You are provided with nutrient solutions A and B. prepare extracts F and M by grinding the foregut (F)
and mid gut (M) of a cockroach respectively .carry out the following experiments.
i) Using the chemicals and reagents provided, establish the identity of nutrients A and B.

TESTS OBSERVATION CONCLUSION

Starch test A

Reducing sugar A

Protein test A

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ii) Set up tube 1-4 at temperatures 37- 400 C for 50 minutes.

TUBE CONTENTS
1 1cm3 of nutrients A + 1cm3 of extract F
2 1cm3of nutrients A + 1cm3 of extract M
3 1cm3of B + 1cm3 of extract F
4 1cm3 of nutrient B + 1cm3 of extract F

v) After incubation divide the contents of each tube into two equal proportions, repeat the test in c(i) for
nutrients identification in solution A on contents of tubes 1 and 2 plus nutrient identified in solution B
contents of tube 3 and record your test and observation in table II below (10mks)

TEST Tube test OBSERVATION

TUBE 1

TUBE 2

TUBE 3

TUBE 4

d) i) suggest a confirmatory test you would carry out on the contents of tube 1 and 2 to determine the
nature of product formed . (02mks)
ii) Carry out the test you have stated in C (i) above and record your results in table III below.
TEST OBSERVATION CONCLUSION
TUBE 1

TUBE 2

e) From table I, II, III:

A. Give two properties of the active substance F. (3mks)
1.………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………

2…….…………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..……………………

b) Account for difference (if any) in result of contents of tubes 3 and 4 (4mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………….……………………...……………………………………
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Practical 10
You are provided with specimen P (toad)
a) Examine the specimen and give five observable adaptive features that enable the specimen to survive
in its habitat. (5mks)
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii)…………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………..………………

iv)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………

v)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Dissect the specimen to display the:
i) Blood vessels taking blood to the left lung of the animal.
ii) Blood vessels returning blood from the right side of the head and chest region of the animal to the
heart with the heart pinned anteriorly. Draw and label your dissection. (24mks)

Practical 11
You are provided with specimen W (toad) which is freshly killed.
Examine the specimen and answer the following questions.
a).Describe the role of the skin in the effecting the following functions:-

i) Locomotion (06marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Respiration
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii) Protection
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………

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b) Lay and pin the animal on its back Dissect the specimen to expose the superficial muscles posterior to
the head region and anterior to the hind limbs. Draw and label your dissection. (10mks)

c) Dissect the specimen and trace the routes of blood flow to the heart from organs found in the left half
of the abdominal region. Draw and label without displacing the heart. (18mks)

ii) Proceed to strip off all the skin from the left hind limb. Using a blunt knife, isolate the muscles that
are visible from the ventral view .draw to show the arrangement of the muscles in the thigh (5mks)

Practical 12
A fleshy killed specimen H (cockroach) is provided
a) Measure the following (11/2 mks)
i) Length of cockroach in cm…………………………………………………….……….………….……………………………..

ii) Width of the specimen in cm……………………………………………..…………………….………………………………

iii) Ratio of length: width……………………………………………………….………………………..………………………….

iv) State the ecological importance of that ration to the cockroach.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………….…………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………..……….

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b) Describe the antennae and explain how it is adapted to its function. (02 marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
c) i) Carefully cut off the right maxilla. Observe using a hand lens .draw and label. (8marks)

ii) Give three adaptation of the maxilla to its functions.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………….……….………………...…………………………………….………

d) i) Place the specimen dorsal side uppermost. Cut along one left lateral line of the specimen to display
the digestive system when displaced to the left and structures on the tergum. Draw and label your
dissection.

ii) State the function of each part of the digestive system you have labeled below.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………...…………………………………

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Practical 13
You are provided with specimen K (TOAD) which is freshly killed.
Examine the external structures listed below. For each structure
a) Describe the position and give two descriptive features
i) cloacal aperture (5marks)
……………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..…………………………………………

…………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………
ii) ear drum
…………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………

………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………..………………………..………………………..……………………………

iii) hind foot

………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………….……………………………….……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………….…………….……………

b) i) measure the thickness, width and length of the head (21/2marks)

Thickness……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………….……..cm

Width…………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………cm

Length……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……cm

ii) State the ratio of

Thickness: width ………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Thickness: length ……………………………………………..…………………………………………………..…………………….

iii) What is the significance of the shape and proportions of the head in relation to its mode of life?
(2marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………

……………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………
C) Further dissect the specimen to display,
i) The blood vessels that transport blood from the heart to the left fore limb, lung and skin.
ii) The blood vessels that drain blood from the alimentary canal and its associated organs back to the
heart. With the heart displaced anteriorly and alimentary canal displaced to your right side draw and
label the blood vessels and structures displayed in (i) and (ii) on the same drawing. (26 marks)

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Practical 14
a) You are provided with specimen E (cockroach).Using a magnifying lens examine the structures found
on the head region.
i) State two features observed from head region used to classify the specimen. (02mks)
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………
ii) Using low power magnification, observe the left compound eye and first three segments at the base
of the antenna. Make accurate drawings and don’t label. (6mks)

iii) Using a hand lens examine the antennae and hind limbs of the specimen and state how they are
adapted to the habitat of the specimen.

Antennae (02 marks)

………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………
Hind limbs (02marks)
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………

iv) Give three descriptions of the compound eye and relate each description given to the role of the
compound in the specimen. (6mks)
DESCRIPTION ROLE
1

b) Detach all legs by carefully cutting at the point of attachment to the thorax, then observe the
structures found in the anterior half of the specimen using magnifying lens.(take note of the
segmentation/divisions of the structures).
i) Make an accurate drawing showing the structures in anterior half from the ventral view .label only the
segmented /divided structures. (15mks)

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ii) Suggest two roles of segmentation to specimen E. (2mks)

1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Cut off the left wings of specimen .using the low power magnification; observe the major patterns of
veins on each wing.
i) Concisely describe the major patterns of veins on the wings. (4mks)
FORE WING HIND WING

ii) Drawing the outline (margins) of the two wings at magnifications x 2 in the space below.(the hind
wing must be unfolded ) work out the surface area of two wings in cm2.show your working.
FORE WING HIND WING

Express the surface area of the fore wing and hind wing as ratio.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii) Suggested the ecological significance of the ration in the life of specimen E. (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….
Practical 16
You are provided with specimen K. (cockroach)
A) i) With the help of a hand lens, examine the head of the specimen. Using any four observable features on
the head, explain how each of them enables the animal to survive in its habitat. (04mks)

………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………

………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………

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b) View the anterior part of the head using a hand lens. Draw and label. (11 marks)

Cut off the head of the specimen then cut out one eye with as little tissue under it as possible. Place the eye
on the slide with the cut side facing downwards. View under the low power of a microscope.
i) Describe the arrangement of the eye units. (05 marks)
………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………..……

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………
ii) Draw four adjacent eye units. Do not label. (06marks)

iii) What is the significance of the arrangement of the units? (02marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………..…………………
c) With the dorsal side uppermost, dissect the specimen to remove the digestive system. Display the
structures remaining on the ventral cuticle. Draw and label. (12marks)

Practical 16
You are provided with specimen T (toad) which is fleshly killed animal
a) Examine the head, abdomen and limbs when the specimen is placed dorsal uppermost.
i) Describe concisely the shape and appearance of each of these body parts. (05mks)
HEAD
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………….…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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ABDOMEN
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

HIND LIMB
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………….……………………….
ii) Relate the shape and appearance of each structure in (a)(i) above to the role played in the animal.
HEAD (8mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ABDOMEN
…………..……………………………………………………………….……………..………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
HIND LIMB
…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…

…………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

c) Dissect the specimen further to display

i) The main blood vessels that drain blood from the structures responsible for digestion and its
associated organs back to the heart, with the alimentary canal displaced to your right and the heart
turned upwards and pinned through the ventricle.
ii) The structures used for elimination of unwanted materials from the body. Draw and label your
dissection in (i) and (ii). (25mks)

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Practical 17
You are provided with specimens Q (cockroach) which are fleshy killed.
a) Using a hand lens, examine the left compound eye of the specimen including the first three segments
of the antenna, from the base, draw and label the structures observed. (5mks)

b) By further dissection, cut and remove the whole alimentary canal to clearly display the structures on
the ventral cuticle. (Keep the alimentary canal for Q2) .Draw and label structures associated with the
ventral cuticle, anterior to the last abdominal segment. (20 marks)

Practical 18
Cut off the legs and wings of specimen K (cockroach) provided.
a) Using a hand lens, examine the upper and lower abdominal cuticles.
i) Give two major differences and similarities between the two cuticles.
Lower cuticle Upper cuticle

i) Account for each of the observed differences recorded in (a) above. (2mks)

…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…

…………………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
bi) pin the specimen on a dissecting board .dissect to release the dorsal cuticle and pin this cuticle to the
left of the specimen .remove all the fat to display the digestive tract. Draw and label the structures of
the tract without adjusting the position of any structure. (12mks)

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ii) Proceed to remove the whole digestive tract (from oesophagus to the rectum) and dispose it. Clear
off any unnecessary tissue to display the internal structures associated with the cuticles. Draw and label
the structures displayed. (17mks)

Practical 19
You are provided with fleshly killed labeled K (rat).
a) Observe the ventral view of the head.
i) Draw and label the ventral side of the head to show the structures for sensitivity. (7mks)

ii) How are the structures labeled in (a) (i) adapted for their functions? (6mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
b) Dissect the specimen to expose the alimentary canal. Deflect the alimentary canal to the right side of
the animal to display the blood vessels supplying the alimentary canal and its associated organs. Draw
and label. (21mks)

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c) Remove the alimentary canal, dissect the pelvic girdle and display the major blood vessels that drain
the hind limbs and urinogenital system.
Draw and label (10mks)

Practical 20
You are provided with specimen P which is fleshly killed (rat).
a) Examine the ventral side of the right fore and right hind feet.
i) State Two observable differences between the fore foot and hind foot. (2mks)

Fore foot Hind foot

ii) Explain the significance of the differences between the fore foot and hind foot to the mode of life of
the animal
….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….……………………………..…………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………..
iii) State the importance of the features labeled on the foot. (05mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....
vi) Examine the limbs of the specimen and draw and label the ventral side of fore foot and hind foot to
the same magnification, in the space below (06mks)

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c) Place the animal ventral side upper most, examine it and identify its sex giving a reason.
Sex…………………………………………………..……………………………………..……………………………………….…………

Reason…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………….…………….……….…………………..………….……………
c).Dissect the specimen to expose the muscles of the thorax and fore limbs up to the elbows. Draw and
label. (7mks)

d) Dissect the specimen to display the contents of the abdominal cavity. Cut out the stomach without
breaking much of the mesentery. Displace the duodenum loop to the right of the specimen, and then
turn the bulk of the ileum to the left of the specimen. Displace the colon and the caecum downwards to
the right of the specimen to display the vessels that carry blood from the alimentary canal to the liver
which is displaced anteriorly. Draw and label structures visible in the abdominal region in the space
provided. (23 mks)

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Practical 21
You are provided with specimen Q (cockroach).lay specimen on its dorsal sides with its ventral side
upper most.
a) Draw the anterior view of the head. (6mks)

b) Lay the specimen on its ventral side with its dorsal side upper most after cutting off the wings and
limbs .open the thoracic and the five adjacent abdominal segments along the right line. Carefully
separate the cuticles and pin the dorsal cuticle on the other side. Carefully stretch and display the
organs of alimentary canal without breaking on its right .draw and label the exposed features of the
dissection. (23mks)

c) By using the forceps .pluck off the salivary glands and make a side, view the slide under medium
power.
i) Without labeling, examine and draw the salivary glands. (3mks)

ii) Describe how the salivary glands are adapted to its functions. (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………..….……………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………

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Practical 22
You are provided with a freshly killed specimen K (rat).Observe it carefully and then answer the
following questions.
a) State how the positions and structures of any five features on the head of the animal enhance its
survival in its natural habitat. (05marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………..….………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Lay the animal with the ventral side uppermost, dissect and pin the skin. Examine the neck glands and
organs that can be seen from the ventral side of neck anterior to the fore limbs and superficial
structures in the thorax. Make an accurate, well labeled drawing of your dissection. (12 mks)

c)Now dissect the specimen further by opening the thorax and continue into the neck and display
structures involved in the movement of materials in the thoracic and neck region. Draw and label your
dissection with the heart in undisturbed state. (25 marks)

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Practical 23
You are provided with specimen R (toad) which is freshly killed. Examine the fore and hind feet of the
specimen.
a) Draw and label the ventral side of the left fore foot and left hind foot of the specimen. Both
drawings should be at the same magnification. (07marks)
i) Fore foot

ii) Hind foot

b) Dissect the specimen to display the heart and the blood vessels that carry blood from the head
region, intestines and kidneys and back to the heart. Without displacing the heart, draw and
label your dissection. (36 arks)

Practical 24
You are provided with a freshly killed animal labeled M (Toad)
a) Examine the hind and fore feet of the animal.
i) State the differences between the hind foot digits and fore foot digits
Fore foot Hind foot

iii) State the significance of any one difference between the fore foot and hind foot to the mode of life
of the animal.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………..….………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………

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iv) Identify three structures on the head of the specimen that are used for sensitivity and for each
structure, describe its suitability to the role it performs. (05mrks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………..….………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………
c) Dissect the specimen to search for blood vessels that supply blood to the left hand side of the head,
fore limb and lung. Further trace for routes of blood flow, draining the urinogenital system and outer
part of the hind limb .without displacing the heart. Draw and label your dissection.
(25 marks)

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SECTION 2: PHYSIOLOGY
The table below contains standard chemical tests, expected observations and conclusion for food
substances.

Food Chemical test observation conclusion

substance
1 starch To 1cm3 of food The colourless solution turned pale brown Starch absent
substance add 2 drops of solution/yellow solution
iodine solution The turbid solution turns to pale black Little starch
solution/specks of blue-black solution. present
The turbid solution changed to blue- Much starch
black/black solution present
Reducing To 1cm3 of food The colourless solution turned pale blue Reducing sugars
sugars substance add 1cm3 of solution and remained pale blue on boiling absent
2 Benedict’s The colourless solution turned pale blue Little reducing
Solution and boil for 2 solution then on boiling it turned to green sugars present.
min solution.
The colourless solution turned pale blue Moderate
solution which on boiling turned to green amount of
solution, yellow precipitate reducing sugars
present
The colourless solution turned to pale blue Much reducing
solution, which on boiling turned to green Sugars present.
solution, yellow ppt, and then to orange
precipitate.
The colourless mixture turned to pale blue Very much
solution, which on boiling the mixture reducing sugars
turned to green solution, then to yellow present
ppt , to orange ppt and finally to brown
/red ppt
3 Non- To 1cm3of food The colourless solution turned to pale blue Non reducing
reducing Substance, add 1cm3 of solution, which persisted on boiling sugars absent
sugars. dilute HCl, boil and then The colourless solution turned to pale blue Little non
cool. Add 2cm3 of dilute solution, which turned to green solution on reducing sugars
NaOH solution ,followed boiling present.
by 1 cm3 of Benedict’s The colourless solution turned to pale blue Moderate non
solution and finally boil solution, which on boiling turned to green reducing sugars
the mixture solution then to yellow precipitate present.

The colorless solution turned to pale blue Much non

solution ,which on boiling turned to green reducing sugars
solution, yellow precipitate, then to orange present.
precipitate/brown ppt.

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Protein To 1cm3 of food Solution The turbid solution turned to pale blue Proteins absent
4 test add 1cm3 of dilute NaOH solution.
solution followed by 2
The turbid solution turned then to pale Little proteins
drops of CuSO4 solution
purple solution. present.
The turbid solution turned to intense Much proteins
purple/violet solution. present.
5 Lipid test To 1cm3 of food Solution The colourless solution remains clear. Lipids absent
add 5 drops of ethanol
then add 3 drops of
The colourless solution turns to turbid Lipids present.
water and shake
suspension or white emulsion
6 Vitamin C To 1cm3 of DCPIP Blue solution persists Vitamin C is
solution add food absent.
mixture drop wise till
Blue solution turned to colourless solution Vitamin C is
excess
present.

NOTE
Amount of vitamin C in the solution is indicated by how fast the solution decolourises the DCPIP
solution. The faster the solution it decolourises the DCPIP solution the higher the concentration of
vitamin C .If a given solution requires fewer drops to decolourise the same amount of DCPIP ,then it has
a higher concentration of vitamin C .
Boiling of the vitamin C solution lowers its concentration and thus it requires more drops to decolourise
the same amount of DCPIP solution. This is due to evaporation and broken down and hence the less the
concentration of vitamin C in the solution. if the locules/segments of orange or plant tissues boiled in
the water the concentration of vitamin C in the juice lowers because most of the vitamin C diffuses into
the water as the membranes of locules become more permeable with the boiling .
Further still as locules boil, water diffuses into locule and dilutes the concentration of vit.C.The more the
boiling of locules, the more water enters locules and hence the lower the concentration of vitamin C in
the juice.
The only way to know that vitamin C in the locules is decreasing in concentration is to test for it with
DCPIP solution. The juice of the locules that are boiled for long will require more drops to decolurise the
same amount of DCPIP solution. The water within which the locules are boiled tests positive for vitamin
C.This confirms the diffusion of the vitamin C into the water from locules.

The Knowledge of break down of the vitamin C by heat helps the scientists to maintain high
concentration of it in the fruits by; avoiding over boiling of fruits and vegetable, slightly boil the fruits in
little water, store the fruits in cold places or where possible eat row fruits.

If the food solution is added to DCPIP solution; it turns to pink solution when vitamin C is present in little
amounts. When vitamin C is absent, the blue solution persists. The concentration vitamin C is indicated
by the number of drops of solution required to turn DCPIP solution to colourless solution. The more the
number of Drops of solution required to decolourise the blue colour of DCPIP Solution to colourless, the
lower the concentration of vitamin C present in the solution/extract.
In the chemical test, the word drops implies solution because droppers are only on the solutions.

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ENZYMES AND ENZYME ACTIVITY

Introduction:
Enzymes are organic catalysts of high molecules weight, with complex structure .they in the protoplasm
of living cells .Because they are proteins, their properties are proper proteins. The essential role of
enzymes is to lower the amount of activation energy required to initiate a particular reaction.
Enzymes are specific in their action in that a single enzyme will only catalyse a single chemical reaction.
An enzyme operates by becoming temporarily interlocked with the substrate molecules (template or
lock –and key-theory) and its ability to catalyse the reaction depends on the closeness of the theory.
Their activity is affected by environmental factors like temperature and PH.They are named by adding
the suffix”-ase” to the name of the substrate on which the enzyme acts, e.g. starch enzymes are
amylases, protein enzymes are proteases, urea enzymes ureases, maltose enzymes maltases. However,
other enzymes do not fall into this normal type of nomenclature, e.g the amylase, of saliva called
“ptyalin, that extracted from barley, diastase””

Classification of enzymes
Hydrolytic enzymes; these are enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of/hydrolyze the food substances
in presence of water a process called hydrolysis.
a) those enzymes that catalyses break down of some carbohydrates
i) Diastase /amylase that catalyses the breakdown of starch into reducing sugars under
suitable conditions like alkaline medium and favorable temperature.
ii) Sucrase or invertase that catalyses breakdown of sucrose into reducing sugars under
alkaline medium and favorable temperature
b) Proteolytic enzymes these are enzymes that break down proteins e.g. pepsin and trypsin that
catalyses the breakdown of insoluble large molecules of proteins into soluble molecules
.proteins area large molecules which form turbid solution is incubated with protease enzyme ,it
clears due to the breakdown of proteins into soluble smaller molecules.
c) Those catalyse the breakdown of lipids (fats) to soluble fatty acids and glycerol is lipase.
Oxidizing-reducing enzymes:

d) ENZYME CATALASE
This enzyme is found in all living tissues and dead cells lack catalase enzyme.
Catalase enzyme needs a suitable temperature of 37-40oC for its rapid decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide. It speeds up metabolism. Like any other enzymes catalase enzyme is specific in its activity in
that it only catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
E.g. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) a toxic product of metabolism in tissues is broken down by catalase
enzyme into H2O and O2 which are harmless.
2H2O2 (aq) catalase 2H2O(I) + O2 (g).
Toxic Harmless substance

When writing observation of the catalase reaction, the focus should be put on the rate of bubbling,
Indicating whether it is slow /little/few, moderate (fast) or very fast effervescence.
Then conclusion must relate to the rate of effervescence by stating whether the rate of enzyme activity
is low, high or highest.
The rate of enzyme activity depends on many factors like;
1.Surface area of the tissue containing the enzyme molecules or the concentration of the enzyme
molecules .the higher the concentration of the enzyme molecules, the higher the collision of the enzyme
molecules with the substrate and hence the faster the rate of reaction

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2. Concentration of substrate (H2O2), its concentration is directly related to the rate of reaction.
The higher the concentration of the substrate molecules, the higher the collision of the substrate with
the enzyme molecules at a time leading to higher rate of reaction
3. Medium of the solution .catalase is more active in the neutral solution, followed by alkaline solution;
it is not active in acidic solution.
The rate of reaction of enzyme catalase can be measured by;
 Counting the number of bubbles or the amount of froth formed at a given time .the more the
bubbles or froth the faster the rate of reaction.
 Noting the time taken for bubbling or the reaction to stop .the time of the reaction depends of
many factors like concentration of the substrate or of the enzyme and the temperature of the
medium.

NB. Evolution of O2 gas leads to bubbling /effervescence or formation of the froth in the solution.
Note:
Conditions Observations Conclusion Explanation
Boiled no bubbles/ No decomposition of Catalase enzyme is denatured by high
tissue/liver effervescence H2O2 temperatures/boiling.
formed
Ground Very rapid reaction Very rapid/rapid cutting of more pieces, large surface
pieces/cut into /rapid decomposition of H2O2 area exposed more active
smaller pieces effervescence/very substance/catalase to
many bubbles breakdown/decompose hydrogen
peroxide
Intact tissue fewer slow decomposition of Small/Less surface area active
bubbles/slower the H2O2 substance/catalase enzyme exposed
effervescence to decompose H2O2
Irish potato Moderate/ few/ Slow/moderate/deco The unpeeled side reduced on the
unpeeled less/ slow reaction mposition of H2O2/ amount of active substances/
cube Slow break down of enzyme and therefore slow
H2O2 decomposition of H2O2
size of the fewer slow decomposition of Smaller in size; fewer number of
tissue/ bubbles/slower the H2O2 enzyme molecules/low/less catalase
concentration effervescence enzyme concentration; which results
of the enzyme into lowest/least chances of collision
with H2O2/substrate molecules; slow
I)small cut rate of decomposition of H2O2. hence
tissue slow rate of reaction
II)bigger cut Very rapid reaction Very rapid/rapid big in size; high/much/more
tissue /rapid decomposition of H2O2 concentration of catalase enzyme
effervescence/very which results into increased chances
many bubbles of collision with H2O2; high rate of
decomposition/breakdown of H2O2
.hence rapid enzyme activity/ rapid
rate of reaction
% of fewer slow decomposition of Less substrate concentration /low% of
H2O2/substrate bubbles/slower the H2O2 H2O2 ; less/low chances of collisions
concentration effervescence with the catalase enzyme active site;
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i)low % slow rate of decomposition of H2O2.

used/low
volume
ii) higher % Very rapid reaction Very rapid/rapid Much substrate concentration/low%
used/higher /rapid decomposition of H2O2 of H2O2; higher chances of collisions
volume used effervescence/very with the catalase enzyme active site.
many bubbles Hence rapid rate of decomposition of
H2O2.
pH Very fast /rapid Very fast/rapid In neutral medium; the active
i)neutral effervescence/very breakdown/ substance/enzyme catalysed the
medium many bubbles given decomposition of H2O2 breakdown of H2O2 at a very fast
off rate. Neutral PH medium is most
suitable/highly favours the active
substance to catalyse the breakdown
of H2O2
ii)Alkaline Fast Fast breakdown/ fast decomposition/breakdown
/basic medium effervescence/many decomposition of because the medium is less
bubbles given H2O2/moderate suitable/less favourable for the active
off/moderate breakdown substance to catalyse the breakdown
effervescence of H2O2

iii)Acidic slow slow breakdown/ Slow decomposition/breakdown of

medium effervescence/few decomposition of H2O2 because the acidic PH medium
bubbles given off/ H2O2/very slow does not favour/not suitable for the
very few bubbles breakdown active substance to catalyse the
breakdown of H2O2
The rate of breakdown of H2O2 can be no decomposition or slow, fast (moderate), or very fast (rapid).
With faster rate reaction/very fast effervescence, much froth is formed. The rate of froth formation
depends on the rate of reaction. The reaction with faster rate, forms more froth in a given time. The
growth of the froth can be measured by mixing the subtract (H2O2) with an enzyme in the measuring
cylinder.
With faster rate reaction, froth is formed. The rate of froth formation depends on the rate of reaction.
The reaction with faster rate forms more froth in a given time. The growth of the froth can be measured
by mixing the substrate (H2O2) with an enzyme in the measuring cylinder.

e) Zymase- Is a complex of enzyme usually extracted from yeast cells; it breaks down glucose into
ethanol.
Cheap sources of enzymes
1) Zymase, sucrase (optimum PH5) from yeast cells.
2) Proteolytic enzymes such as papain enzyme from fruits juices e.g. pineapples and paw paw .
3) Urease from extract of Soya bean seedlings with radicles2-3cm long.
4) Pepsin from extracts of stomach lining.
5) Diastase from barley and germinating maize seeds.
6) Catalase from extracts of living tissues liver muscles like liver muscles, leaf, potato, apple,
pawpaw etc.

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SECTION 3: PHYSIOLOGY OF GERMINATING SEEDS

Plant stores its food in the seeds in the complex forms like starch, proteins and oils. Seeds are storage
organs of seed bearing plants .they mostly store carbohydrates in form of starch for example maize,
sorghum and Soya peas. Some store mostly proteins e.g. beans and Soya beans while others store lipids
e.g. ground nuts and cotton seeds.
During seed germination, the complex food substances are broken down by certain enzymes into simple
soluble molecules that can be translocated (transported) to the growing points for various functions. For
examples,
Starch is broken down (hydrolyzed) to reducing sugars (glucose) which are broken down (respired) to
provide energy for the growing embryo during germination.
The longer the period of germination, the more the reducing sugars but the little the starch. This is
because more starch is broken down into reducing sugars with increased days of germination.

However with longer period of germination (seven days), both starch and reducing sugars reduce in
amount because almost all the carbohydrates have been utilized by germinating parts for energy and for
structural materials like cellulose which is used in formation of cell wall.
Most seeds store relatively little proteins except some seeds like beans. During germination proteins are
also broken down into simple molecules, the amino acids.

Amino acids are used during germination for structural purposes ( formation of new cells) leading to
growth Amino acids are also used in formation of enzymes .hence the amount of proteins in the seeds
reduces with days of germination.

During germination the stored food is broken down or hydrolysed by seed enzymes into simple soluble
molecules which are used for development of seedling. The soluble molecules are translocated from the
storage regions to area of development from endosperm to the cytoplasm.
Hydrolysis of stored food increases with germination. This causes a decrease in the complex stored food
molecules and an increase simple food molecule. Further increases in the period of germination leads to
the decrease in both complex and simple molecules since are being used for germination.
 Amylase enzyme catalyses the hydrolysis or break down of Starch into reducing sugars leading
to a decrease in starch and an increase in reducing sugars with germination. But after a week (7
days), the amount of reducing sugars in the seed also decreases because it is being respired for
energy.
 Proteins are broken down into simple molecules by protease enzymes which are used for
structural purposes. Thus protein amounts decreases with the progress of germination.
 Lipids are broken down by lipase enzyme leading to its decrease with germination.

EXPERIMENTS USED TO DETERMINE THE WATER POTENTIAL OF PLANT TISSUE.

Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules (water) from a region of low solute concentration to a
region of high solute concentration via a semi permeable membrane.
Low concentration region (solution) is dilute solution with more water and less dissolved solute while a
highly concentrated solution is the one with more dissolved solute and less amount of water.
In terms of water concentration (amounts) ,water is highly concentrated in low concentrated( dilute )
solution than in highly concentrated one.

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Thus osmosis is well defined as movement of water molecules from where is highly concentrated to its
low concentration through a semi permeable membrane.
Or osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a semi permeable membrane.
Semi permeable membrane is the one that allows only small molecules like water and prevent large
ones from passing through it. Example of such a membrane includes cell membrane and visking tube.
Diffusion is the movement of solute molecules from a region of their high concentration to region low
concentrated region. Both osmosis and diffusion are passive processes since they do not require any
energy to occur.
Determination of osmotic pressure /potential of a plant tissue using standard solutions by basing on;

1. CHANGE IN LENGTH OF PLANT TISSUES

Osmotic pressure is the concentration of the plant tissue. Potato Cylinders of same length are place in
different sucrose solutions.
The sucrose Solution, whose cylinder increased in length, is less concentrated compared to that of the
cell sap of the plant tissue. Thus the cell sap of the plant tissue (the cylinder) absorbed water by osmosis
from the solution and its cells expanded (became turgid) leading to increase in total length of the hard,
rigid, rough, swollen and stiff cylinders.
The solution, whose cylinders decreased in length, is highly concentrated compared to that of the cell
sap plant tissue. Thus the cell sap of the plant tissue (the cylinders) lost water by osmosis to the highly
concentrated solution and its cells became flaccid (flabby) leading to a decrease in length of a smooth,
soft, flabby cylinder.
The solution, whose cylinder almost remained with the same length, shows that the concentration of
the external solution and that of the cell sap of plant tissue are the same. In other wards they are
isotonic. There was no net loss or gain of water by both solutions/water molecule movement was in
both solution was at equilibrium

CHANGE IN LENGTH OF THE POTATO CYLINDERS

Cylinders of same length and diameter are immersed in solutions of different concentration and left to
stand for 45-60 minutes, remove the cylinders and accurately measure and record the final length and
diameter .then obtain the difference in the length and diameter.
The solution, in which the change in the length and diameter is almost zero, is isotonic to the plant
tissue.
The cylinders placed in hypotonic solution absorb water by osmosis and increase in length and diameter
.thus the change in the length and diameter is positive.
The change in length and diameter is negative when the cylinders lose water by osmosis to hypertonic
solution.

RISING AND SINKING OF THE DROP

Two sets of the solution are made .one of which is dyed to become coloured .then dip the cylinders of
the same size in colour for 45 minutes .Remove the cylinders .with the dropper suck the coloured
solution and dip the dropper mid way into the corresponding clear solution and then release a drop .do
the same to other solutions.
The drop floats within /spreads (does not sink or rise) in the isotonic solution to the plant tissue.
The drop rises in the denser solution i.e. when coloured solution is less dense than clear solution
The drop sinks in less dense solution i.e. when the coloured solution is denser than clear solution.

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The density of the solution is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution i.e. as the
concentration increases.
The rate, at which the drop rises, increases with decreasing density of the coloured solution. The rate of
sinking of the drop increases within the density of the coloured solution.
When spread the drop spreads, there was no net gain or loss of water by cylinders in the coloured
solution, then the concentration of the coloured and clear solutions remain the same.

When the drop sinks, the hypertonic cylinders osmotically absorbed water from the coloured solution
making it more concentrated than the corresponding clear one. The drop sinks faster when the cylinder
has osmotically lost water to the hypertonic coloured solution making it less concentrated than the
corresponding clear solution. The drop rises faster when the cylinder has lost more water to the
hypertonic coloured solution making it more less dense (less concentrated) compared to corresponding
clear solution.

Solutions of varying concentrations are set .cylinders of same size are made at least 1cm diameter and
6cm length. Immerse one cylinder in each solution. Let the experiment stand for 60minutes .remove the
cylinders without losing any drop of the solution. Then measure and record the final volume of the
solutions.
The solution whose volume remains the same or closest to the original volume ,has a concentration
similar to that of the potato cylinder .such solution also gives a ratio of initial volume to final volume of
1:1or nearest to that.
The solution which increased in the volume osmotically gained water from hypotonic potato cylinder
.thus the solution was more concentrated or has lower water potential or has higher osmotic potential
than the cylinder.
The solution which reduced in the volume osmotically lost water to the hypertonic cylinder. Thus the
solution is less concentrated or has a higher water potential or a lower osmotic pressure or a higher
osmotic potential than the potato cylinder.
When arranging solutions in decreasing water potential or osmotic potential, start with ore dilute
solution and end with more concentrated solution .this is because a more dilute solution has a higher
osmotic potential or water potential.
The cylinders in the solution with osmotic potential are characterized by being hard or turgid or rigid or
stiff, longer, swollen or bigger and with a rough texture.
The cylinders in the solution the lowest osmotic potential are characterized by being soft or flabby,
shrunken, shorter and with a smooth texture.
The importance of the above characteristics of the cylinders in different concentration are;
 The herbaceous plant takes in water by osmosis to become turgid and gain support.
 Turgidity enables plant to store water.
 Flabby nature leads to wilting of plant leaves to reduce water loss.

PERCENTAGE PLASMOLYSIS OF PLANT CELLS

The epidermal strips are immersed in the solutions varying concentration for 20 minutes.
Count the number of plasmolysed cells in every 20 cells .calculate the percentage plasmolysis of the cells
in each solution. Then plot a graph of percentage against concentration.
NB.
Sometimes a standard solution (a solution of a known concentration) is provided .this can be used to
prepare many solutions of varying concentration but of same volume. This is done by using dilution

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method .i.e. .a certain volume of the standard solution is obtained which is then dilute to prepare the
required solution.
Follow the formula below.
M1V1 = M2V2 Where M1 =Concentration of standard solution
V1 = Volume of a standard solution to be diluted.
M2 = Concentration of the new solution
V2 = Volume of the new solution.
BENDING OF THE HERBACEOUS PLANT STRIPS/ CURLING OF THE STRIPS OF THE PLANT TISSUES
Obtain along inter node of a young plant stem e.g. commelina. Cut it into four longitudinal strips. Dip
one strip into each of the three solutions of known different concentrations.
Observe the strips after 20 minutes.

The strip in the dilute solution more than that of the cell sap of the plant tissue, absorbs more water by
osmosis into its fleshy inner cells and then bends outwards.
The strip in concentrated solution compared to that of the plant tissue, losses water by osmosis to the
solution, its fleshy cells become flaccid and the whole strip bends in wards.
The strip in the isotonic solution (similar concentration) does not curl (bend due to absence of a net loss
or gain of water.

Illustration of the bending (curling) of the strips in different concentrations.

In concentrated solution In dilute solution Isotonic solution
Concentrated solution is Dilute solution is hypotonic to the Isotonic Solution has the same
hypertonic to the cell sap of cell sap of the strip. Cells of the solute concentration like that
the strip. Cells on the Inner cortex/ inner side of strip therefore of the cell sap of the strip
side of the strip loss more gain more water cells, thus there will be no net
water than the epidermal than the epidermis, causing movement of water and the
cells, causing inward outward bending. strip does not bend.
bending.

Outward bending No bending

inward bending

Measure the distance between the two bent ends and study how the distance between the two ends
varies with varying concentration.
The strip bends in wards when its inner fleshy cells loss water osmotically to a hypertonic solution .due
to loss of more water by fleshy inner cells than the epidermal cells, the fleshy cells shrink making the
whole strip to bend in wards.
The strip in the solution with the same concentration it remains straight without bending, this is due to
no net osmotic gain or loss of water by the strip.
The strip in the hypotonic solution bends out wards with its epidermal layer in wards .this is a result of
osmotic gaining of more water by the Fleshy layer, it expands more leading to out ward bending.
When the strips are immersed into solutions of different concentration their degree of curvature
increases with increase concentration i.e. the distance between the two ends becomes shorter with
increasing concentration.
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Study the illustration of the curved strip

If the distance between the two ends is plotted against the concentration of the solutions, a graph
showing an inverse proportionality between the distance of the two ends and the concentration of the
solutions.

GUIDING QUESTIONS ABOUT PHYSIOLOGY

PRACTICAL 1
You are provided with solutions D; E; and X. You are required to carry out tests on the solution D and E
and then investigate the action of X on D and E.
a) Carry out tests in Table 1 to determine the food nutrients in D and E. Record your test procedure,
observations and deductions in table 1 below. (12 marks)
Table 1

Tests Observations Deductions

Benedict’s test
D

Iodine test D

b) Now label four test tubes 1, 2; 3 and 4. And add contents to each test tube as shown in table 2 below
Table 2
Test tube Contents
1 1cm3 of solution X + 3cm3 of solution D
2 1 cm3 of solution X+ 3cm3 of solution E
3 1 cm3 of solution X + 5cm3 of solution D +1cm3 of solution Y
4 1 cm3 of solution X + 3cm3 of solution E +1 cm3 of solution Y

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Incubate the test tubes for 30 minutes in a water bath maintained at 37-40 0C (meanwhile continue with
other tasks)
After 30 minutes; divide the contents of each test tube into two and carry out a iodine test and
Benedict’s test as shown in table 3 below. Record you’re your observations and deductions in the table.

Table 3 (16marks)
Test Test Observations Deductions
tube
Iodine test 1

Benedict’s 1
test

ii) From your results, state the nature of solution X and Y giving reasons for your answer.
(03mks)
Nature of X:………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………..…
Reasons
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………….……………………………………

…………………………………….………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………..………..

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Nature of Y…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… (01 mk)

Reasons
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………...…

PRACTICAL 2
You are provided with solution C and an extract D from a plant organ.
a) Carry out tests on solutions as indicated in table 1.Record your tests, observations and deductions in
table 1 below. (20 marks)
Table 1
TEST solution OBSERVATIONS DEDUCTIONS

Iodine test C

Benedict’s test C

C
Biuret test

DCPIP test C

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b) Label the FOUR test tube as 1,2,3 and 4 and put contents in each test tube as indicated in table 2.
Table 2
Test tube Contents
1 2 cm3 of C and 2 cm3 of D
2 2 cm3 of C and 1 cm3 of D and 1 cm3 of dil HCl
3 2 cm3 of C and 2 cm3 of D and 1 cm3 of dil NaOH
4 2 cm3 of C and 2 cm3 of boiled and cooled D

Incubate the test tubes in the same water bath maintained 37-40oC for 11/2 hour (you may continue with
other in the meantime)
After 11/2 hours, carry out tests in table 3 and record your observations and deductions in the table.
Table 3
TEST OBSERVATIONS DEDUCTIONS
i) Divide contents in test tube
1 into four portions. On the
1st portion, carry out an
iodine test
ii) on the 2st portion, carry
out a Benedict’s test

iii) on the 3st portion, carry

out a Biuret test

iv) on the 2st portion, carry

out a DCPIP test

V) carry out a Biuret test on

contents of test tube 2

VI) Repeat test (V) using

contents of test tube 3

VII) Divide contents test tube

4 into 2 portions.
Carry out a biuret test on the
1st portion
viii) Carry out a DCPIP test on
the 1st portion.

Explain your results in table 3 (04marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………

.………………………………………..……………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…….………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

From your results, state the nature of extract D (02 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICAL 3
You are provided with suspensions A (which is an extract from a plant organ) and B Solutions C D and Y
are common laboratory reagents. You are required to determine the effect of solution D on suspension B
a) Using the lab chemicals provided, carry out experiments to determine the composition of the
two suspensions. In test IV, to 2 cm3 of each suspension add 1cm3 solution C.
Record your tests and observations in the table below (12marks)

Test solution Observations

i) STARCH TEST
A

A
ii) BIURET TEST

iii) DCPIP TEST

A

iv ) To 1cm3 of solution A,B A

ADD 2cm3 of solution C

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b) Giving two reasons for your observations, name the suspension with,
i) a complex composition (02marks)

Suspension
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reasons
…………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………...……………
ii) an active substance only (02marks)
Suspension
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………..………………………………
Reasons
………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………..…………………………...……………
b) To 2cm3 of the suspension B add 2cm3 of solution D.
Transfer the contents of the tube into material V provided. Tie the open ends of material V tightly using
a thread. Suspend the material and its contents into a boiling tube containing 15 cm3 of water and
incubate the mixture at a temperature of 400C.
Carry out the Benedict’s test on the warm water in the boiling tube after 5 min, 20 minutes and 40
minutes.

Record your test, observations and deduction. (08 mks)

TEST TIME/ OBSERVATIONS DEDUCTIONS

MIN
5 min

20min

40min

i) Giving evidence from your observations in (a) and (b) ,comment on the nature of Solution D

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………

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Material V (02mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………...……………
iii) Relate the results obtained in (d) above to similar physiological activity in humans. (04mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………….……………………………...……………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………….……………………………...…………

PRACTICAL 4
You are provided with a young herbaceous stem labeled E (amaranthus) and sucrose solutions labeled
A, B, C and D. Obtain two pieces of stem of 4cm.cut each stem longitudinally to obtain four sections.
a) Note the normal curvature of the section and make a labeled drawing of one of them in the space
below.

b) Place each section into solutions A, B, C and D in a Petri dish and leave to stand for 50 minutes while
agitating periodically.
After making observations describe and draw the nature of the curvature of each of the stems in each
solution.

SOLUTION A SOLUTION B

SOLUTION C SOLUTION D

c) Arrange the solutions in descending order of concentration.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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d) Explain your results for each solution.

A
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….
B
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………

D
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
e) Why do the sections bend outwards as soon as they have been split from the stalk?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
f).Explain why a young stem is used in this experiment.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………..………
PRACTICAL 5
You are provided with two solutions (C1 and C2) of different concentrations and specimen C
a) Carefully remove three small strips of the lower epidermis from specimen c and place on to glass
slides labelled C1, C2 and C3 .mount epidermal strips C1 and C2 in three drops of the respective solutions
and strip C3 in three drops of distilled water. Leave to stand for 10 minutes before observing under a
microscope.
i) Draw part of the strip from C3 to show one stoma and label. (07 marks)

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ii) Compare the appearance of the stoma from C1 and C2 with that from C3 as drawn above.
(02 mark)

C1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..………..……
C2
…………………………………………..…………………...…………..………………………………………………………………………………

………………………...………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………..………………
iii) Explain your answer for C1 in (a) (ii) above. (04 marks)

………………………………………..……….………………………………………………………….………………………………………………

……….……………………………..……...…………………………..……………………………………………………………….………………

………………………….……………..……………..……………………………..…………………………………………………………….……

……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………
b) Prepare solutions 1-5 by mixing solutions C1 and C2 as follows;
i) Label tubes 1-5 and add C2 into the tubes as indicated in table 1.
ii) Make up the contents of each tube to 10cm3 by adding C1. Record the volume of C1 added into each
tube in table 1 below. (021/2marks)
TABLE: 1
TUBES 1 2 3 4 5
3
C2/ cm
10.0 7.5 5.0 3.0 0.5

C1/ cm3
Total vol /cm3

c) Carry out the procedures below:-

i) Cut five cylinders of length 6 cm from plant material D provided. Chop the first cylinder into ten
smaller pieces of uniform size and transfer the pieces into solution -1
ii) Repeat the above procedure using the remaining cylinders and solutions 2, 3, 4 and 5
iii) Leave the set up to stand for 1 hour.
iv) After 1 hour, pour all the solution from test tube 1 into a small measuring cylinder and record the
volume in table 2
v) Repeat the above procedure for solutions from the remaining tubes. Tabulate your results as follows:
TABLE 2 (06 marks)
solutions 1 2 3 4 5
Final volume(V2 ) / cm3

Initial volume( V1)/cm3

Change in volume (V2-V1) cm3

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d) Giving explanations based on the results in table 2,

i) Arrange solutions 1-5 in order of increasing osmotic potential (01mark)
Order
……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………..……………………………………
Explanation (021/2marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………..……………

………………………………………………………………………………..……….….……………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………..…………………………

…………………………………………………………….……………………………………………..…………………………………………………..

ii) Suggest the solution(s) with most predictable results

Solution (s) (01mark)

……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation (02marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….……………..………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….…………………….………
e) Explain the results in tube with solution 2 (04 marks)

……………………………………………..…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………..……………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
PRACTICAL 6
You are provided with colored sucrose solutions each measuring 10cm3 and each with a concentration
as shown. A (0.01M), B (0.1M), C (0.25M), D (0.4M), E (0.75M) and F (1.0M).
a) Using the clear sucrose of 1.0M and distilled water, prepare 10cm3 each of solution A1-F1 with
concentrations corresponding to that of solutions A-F above.
(1) Record the amount of the clear solution and distilled water used in the table below;
Table 1
Solutions A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1
Volume of clear solution used
(cm3)

Volume of distilled water

used (cm3)

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(ii) State the formula used to determine the amount of clear solution used in preparation of solution A1-
F1.
Using a cork borer, cut six plant tissues of length 6cm from specimen Q. transfer one plant tissue to each
of the colored solutions and leave to stand for 1 hour
After 1hr;
Suck a little of the colored solution A into a dropper and insert the tip of the dropper halfway into the
corresponding clear solution A1. Carefully release one drop of the colored solution and withdraw the
dropper. Observe and record the movement of the colored drop in the table below. Repeat procedure 1
and 2 using a drop from the remaining solutions (B-F)

Table II

Solutions Observed movement of the colored drop

A

(c) Explain the observed behavior of a drop of colored solution from.

(i) Solution C (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….
(ii) Solution B (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………..…..…………
(iii) Solution E (3mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………..…………………………

………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
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(iv) Suggest how you would experimentally verify the explanations given in c (i), (ii) and (iii). (3mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………....
d (i) compare the physical conditions of the plant tissues immersed in solution B and F.
Table III
From solution B From solution F
1

(ii) Explain how the physical conditions of the plant materials from the two solutions (B and F) may be
used to their osmotic potentials. (4mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………....…….
(iii) Suggest one advantage of the observed physical condition of the plant from solution B has over that
from solution F in non woody plants. (3mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..………………………………………………………..…
Practical 7
You are provided with specimen K and sucrose solutions of different concentrations as shown in table 1.
Carry out the tests on the specimen using the solutions according to the following instructions
1. Cut long strips out of K using a cork borer of 0.5cm in diameter. All strips must be cut along the
same axis.
2. From the long strips, cut out six strips each measuring 3 cm in length.
3. Place one strip in each of the sucrose solutions ensuring that the strip is immersed.
4. Leave the set-up for 1 hour(you may proceed with other work in the meantime)
5. After 1 hour, remove one strip at a time and measure its final length.
a) Record the measurements appropriately in table 1
b) Complete the table by working out the initial length: final length ratio for each piece.

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Table 1
Molarity of sucrose solution Initial length (cm) Final length (cm) initial length: final
length ratio
Ao=0.0M( distilled water)

A1= 0.1M

A2=0.25M

A3=0.5M

A4=0.75M

A5=1.0M

c) In the space provided, plot a graph of the initial: final length ratio against the molarity of the
sucrose solution. (09maks)

From your graph,

i) Deduce how turgor pressure and osmotic pressure of the tissue of K varied in the different
sucrose solutions (06marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Determine the molarity of sucrose solution that is isotonic to that of the cell sap of K. show your
working on the graph

(iii) Record the physical conditions of the cylinders from solution A1, A2, and A5
Solutions Physical conditions of cylinders
A1

A2

A5

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iv) Compare the physical conditions of the plant tissues immersed in solution in test tube A1 and A5.
Table III
From solution A1 From solution A5
1

(d) i)Explain the results obtained in test tubes A1, A2 and A5. (9mks)
Test tube A1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Test tube A2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
Test tube A5
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…...
ii) Suggest one advantage of the observed physical condition of the plant from solution A1 has over that
from solution A5 in non woody plants.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
iii) Suggest the ecological significance of your observations of the physical conditions to the life cycle of
the specimen K (3mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..………………………………………………………..…

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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PRACTICAL 8
You are provided with solutions A(0.25M) ;B(0.2M);C(0.3M);D(0.5M);E(0.15M);F(0.10M) and
G(0.70M)which are sucrose solutions of different concentrations and specimen M(fresh big-sized Irish
potato tubers)
a) Carry out tests on M and the solutions using the procedure provided.
i) Label 14 test tubes in two sets, A1,A2,B1,B2,C1,C2,D1,D2, E1,E2, F1,F2 and G1,G2.put the solutions into
corresponding sets of test tubes in the quantities shown in table 1
TABLE1

TEST TUBE SOLUTION ADDED

A1, 3 cm3 of A
A2, 2 cm3 of A
B1, 3 cm3 of B
B2, 2 cm3 of B
C1, , 3 cm3 of C
C2 2 cm3 of C
D1 3 cm3 of D
D2 2 cm3 of D
E1 3 cm3 of E
E2 2 cm3 of E
F1, 3 cm3 of F
F2 2 cm3 of F
G1 3 cm3 of G
G2 2 cm3 of G

ii) Arrange test A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, F1 and G1 in a front row and A2, B2, C2 ,D2 ,E2, F2 and G2 in the back row in a
test tube rack.
iii) Now add a small drop of methylene blue to each of the test tubes in back row using a dropper just to
colour the solutions.
iv) Using a cork borer, prepare seven uniform cylinders from specimen T measuring between 6-8 mm in
diameter and 5-6 cm in length.
v) Add one cylinder to each of the test tubes in the front row (uncoloured solutions) and leave for 20
minutes
vi) After 20 minutes, decant the liquid in test tube A1 into another test tube.
vii) using a dropper ,obtain a coloured solution from test tube A2 and add carefully, lower the tip of the
dropper into the centre of the decanted liquid, about 5mm from the surface, and release one drop of
the coloured solution as shown in fig 1

viii) observe the behavior of the coloured drop and record your observation in
table 2.clean the dropper and the test tube and repeat procedures (vi)-(viii) using
the liquids in the remaining sets of test tubes by decanting solutions from test
tubes with potato cylinder and adding a drop of coloured solution from
corresponding test tubes in the back row. (14 marks)

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Table 2
Test tube from which liquid is Behaviour of the coloured drop
decanted
B1,

C1, ,

D1

F1,

G1

b) Explain the behavior of the coloured drop in each decanted liquid. (10marks)

B1,

C1, ,

D1

F1,

G1

From your results, estimate the water potential of the cells of specimen T. give a reason for your answer.
(02marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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PRACTICAL 9

You are provided with solutions A, B and C.You are to investigate the action of solution C on solution A
and B.
a) Carry out the following tests on the solutions and record your results in table below.
Test observations Deductions
i) starch test on A

ii) starch test on B

iii) Benedict’s test on A

iv)Repeat test (iii) using

solution B

v)NON-Reducing test on A

vi)Repeat test(v)using solution

B

b)Take the two visking tubes provided ,open them and thread tie the end of tube securely .add 2cm3 of
solution A, followed by 2 cm3 solution C to one visking solution into a boiling tube containing 10cm3of
water ,leaving the thread to hang out of the boiling tube .label the boiling tube 1.
Repeat the procedure, by adding solution B and C into the second visking tube label the tube 2. (Your set
up should look like drawing below)

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Incubate the boiling tubes at 370C-400C to 20 minutes. After 20 minutes carry out the following tests
(6mks)
Tests observation deduction
To 1cm3 of water from boiling
tube 1 in a test tube ,add 2
drops of iodine

To 1cm3 of water from boiling

tube 1 add 1cm3 of Benedict’s
solution and boil.

Repeat test (ii) using water

from boiling tube 2

c) Explain your results in test (b) ii) and iii) (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
i) Suggest the nature of substance C (1mk)
…………………………………..……………………………………….………..………………………………………………………………………
ii) From the results, state one property of C. (1mk)

…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………..

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PRACTICAL 10

You are provided with specimen M, N1 andN2 which are plant parts.

a) Peel specimen M and cut it into three parts namely, apex, middle and base as shown in figure 1.

Put the apex in a mortal and grind using a pestle. Decant at least 4 cm3 of the juice into a test tube, add
an equal amount of water and label the extract A.
Clean the mortar and pestle and repeat the procedure using middle part of M, to obtain an extract and
label it C.
Clean the mortar and pestle and repeat the procedure using the base part of M, to obtain an extract and
label it C.
Carry out a DCPIP test, Benedict’s test and biuret test on each extract .record your tests observations
and deductions in table.
For DCPIP test, record the number of drops required to decolourise DCPIP.

Tests solution Observation/number of drops Deductions

DCPIP test A

Benedict’s test A

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Biuret test A

a) Describe the pattern of distribution of food substances in specimen M (03 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Specimen N1 (raw banana) and N2 (ripe banana) are parts of a fruits at different stages of
development. Peel and cut from each specimen, a piece measuring 3cm x3cm x 3cm. Using a mortar and
pestle, grind the piece from N1 into a paste, add 10 cm3of water , stir well and leave to settle . After
settling, decant off the solution and label it E. Repeat the procedure using the piece from specimen N2,
and label it F. Carry out an iodine test, a Benedict’s test and Biuret test on each solution. Record your
observations and deductions Table 2.

Tests 0bervations Deductions

Iodine test
E

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Benedict’s test
E

Biuret test
E

d) (i) describe the relationship between the distribution of food substances and development of the fruit
from which N1 and N2 were obtained. (2.5 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………..………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii) From your results in Table 2, comment on the suitability of specimens N1and N2 as the main diet for a
young child.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………..…

Practical 11
You are provided with specimen P and sugar solutions of varying concentrations labeled A, B, C, D, E
and F.
(a). measure 8.0cm3 of each solution and transfer the solutions into test tubes labeled Correspondingly.
Using a cork borer, obtain six equal sized cylinders of at least 0.6cm/6mm diameter from specimen P
and trim the cylinders to uniform length of 6.0cm. Immerse a cylinder into each of the solutions in the
test tubes and leave for 1:30 minutes.
(i) After 1:30 minutes, transfer solution A into a measuring cylinder and record the final volume in table
below.
Repeat the procedure for the remaining solutions

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Test sucrose Initial Final volume(V2 ) Change in % change in Initial

3
tube concn/ volume / cm volume(V2-V1) volume Volume:
M (V1)/cm3 cm3 final volume
ratio

A 0.0M
0.1M
B
0.25M
C
0.5M
D
0.75M
E

F 1.0M
(ii) Plot a graph of % change in volume OR change in volume with concentration of sucrose
solutions
iii) Calculate the initial volume to final volume ratio, of the solution in the spaces provided in the
table above.

b) Suggest the solution with the concentration nearest to that of the cell sap of specimen P. explain your
answer. (6mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………….……………..…....
(ii). Arrange solutions A to F in order of decreasing osmotic potential
Explain your answer. (6mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
(c) Explain the results obtained in test tubes A, D and E. (9mks)
Test tube A
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………….………………..…
Test tube D
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………..……..…
Test tube E
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..……………...
Practical 12
You are provided with plant materials labeled PI and P2, sucrose solution A-F of concentrations- 0.0M,
0.1M, 0.25M, 0.4M and 0.6M, 0.8M respectively.
(a) Carry out the procedure below:
Measure and cut 5.0cm length of specimen P. then from each piece obtain four equal sized strips by
slicing P1 longitudinally using a sharp razor blade.
Repeat this procedure using specimen P2. Observe the strips from P1 and P2. Record and account for the
appearance and physical nature of the strips from the specimens (06mks)
Strip from P1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….…….…….
Strip from P2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………...……….
(b) Transfer 30cm3 of sucrose solution into petri dishes A-F.
Choose the best strips and immerse one strip from P1 into each solution plus one from P2 into solution A
only. Leave the set up to stay for 20 minutes before examining the strips.
Record and account for the appearance and physical nature of the strip placed in solution A after
20minutes. (8mks)
Strip from P1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………

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Strip from P2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………....

(a) Explain the curvature of the strip P1 placed in the following sucrose solution

A
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………
B
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………

C
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………
F
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………

b) Establish the extent of curvature of strips from PI by measuring the difference between the ends of
the strips. Tabulate your results below (4mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………

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Practical 13
You are provided with solution A, B and C. you are required to carry out the following tests to identify
the nature of solution C, and then find out the action of solutions A and B on C.
(a) Carry out tests in Table 1 on solution C to identify its nature. Record your tests, observation and
deductions in Table 1 below. (9mks)

Table 1
Test Observation Conclusion
Starch test

Protein test

Reducing sugar test

(b) Carry out tests described in Table2, and record your observation and deductions in the table.
(4mks)
Table 2
Test Observations Deductions
3
i)To 1cm of A in a test tube, add
1cm3 of dilute sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution mix well,
then add 1cm3 of C and incubate
at (35-40oC for 20 minutes.
ii)Repeat test(b)(i), using solution
B instead of solution A.

(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) using dilute hydrochloric acid instead of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Record your observations and deductions in Table 3 below. (4mks)
Test Observations Deductions
i) To 1cm3 of A add 1cm3 of
dilute HCl then add 1cm3 of C
incubate at 35-40OC for
20minutes.

ii)Repeat test above using

solution B instead of solution A.

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(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) but without using hydrochloric acid or sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Record your observation and deductions in table 4 below. (4mks)

Table 2
Test Observations Deductions
3
i)To 1cm of C in a test tube add
1cm3 of A mix well and incubate
at (35-40) OC for 20 minutes.
ii)Repeat test(d)(i), using solution
B instead of solution A.

(e)(i) Comment on the effects of solutions A and B on solution C. (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) From your results, what are the characteristics of
Solution A (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Solution B (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii) Suggest where in a mammalian body, substances similar to solutions A and B are likely to be found.
Explain your answer. (4mks)
...............................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................
(iv)What was the purpose of the tests in table 4? (1mk)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Practical 14
You are provided with solution X and Y.
(a) Identify the food substances in the solutions X and Y using iodine solution. Benedict’s solution and
CUSO4 and NaOH solution only. Record your tests, observations and deduction in the table below
Test Observation Deduction
Starch test

Reducing sugar test

Protein test

(b) Cut a piece of the stomach from the dissection in question1 (toad), measuring 1cm3. Wash and grind
it in a mortar. Add 4cm3 of distilled water, leave to settle then decant.
Label the extract, S.

Label four test tubes 1, 2, 3 and 4 and add contents to each test tube as shown in the table below
Test tube 1 2cm3 of X and 1cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid solution.
Test tube 2 2cm3 of X and 1cm3 of dilute sodium hydrogen carbonate solution.

Test tube 3 2cm3 of Y and 1cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid.

Test tube 4 2cm3 of Y and 1cm3 of dilute sodium hydrogen carbonate solution.

Divide extract S into four equal portions and add a portion to each of test tube 1, 2, 3 and 4 above.
Incubate the test tubes at 400C for 30 minutes.

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After 30 minutes,

i)Observe test tubes 1 and 2 and record your observations and deductions in the table below.
Observation Deductions
Test tube 1

Test tube 2

(i) Identify the food substances in test tube 1 and 4 using the reagents provided. Record your tests,
observations and deductions in the table below.

Test Tests Observation deduction

tube
3 Iodine test

Protein test

4 Iodine test

Protein test

iii) From your results, state two properties of the active substance in solution S.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………….………………………………….…………………………………………..…………………………………..
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Practical 15
You are provided with extract A, B and C prepared from seedlings at different stages of growth. Using
the reagents provided, carry out tests on the extract and record you tests, observations and deductions
in the table below.
Test soluti Observations Deductions
on
Iodine test A

Biuret test A

b) Giving reasons from your observations, state the extract prepared from seedlings at;
i) Earlier stage of growth (02marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Very advanced stages of growth (03marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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c) You are provided with substrate solution D. To 1cm3 of each extract into a test tube, add 1cm3 of
solution D.record your observations and deductions in the table below.
TABLE 2
Experiments Observations Deductions
1.1cm3 of extract A + 1cm3 of
solution D

2.1cm3 of extract B + 1cm3 of

solution D

3.1cm3 of extract C + 1cm3 of

solution D

i) From your observations, comment on the nature of substract D (01Marks)

……………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) Explain the results in table 2 (04marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii)What biological activity was investigated in table 2 above? (01marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) You have been provided with a fresh bean seed labeled E (fresh bean seed). Remove the testa and
split the seed into two.
i) Cut another piece of stomach two pieces of the liver, a piece of the leg muscle and a piece of
lung from the dissection in question one.
ii) All the pieces should be the same size as one half of the split bean seed. Boil one half of the
bean seed and one piece of the liver, separately for 3 minutes the cool.
Label six test tubes 1, 2, 3, 4 ,5 and 6 then add 2cm3 of HYDROGEN PEROXIDE to each test tube
followed by the different cut pieces to each test tube as indicated in the table below. Record your
observations and deductions
Test tube OBSERVATION CONCLUSION
Test tube 1 add
unboiled half of bean
seed
Test tube 2 add boiled
half of bean seed

Test tube 3 add

unboiled half of piece of
the liver

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Test tube 4 add boiled

half of piece of the liver

Test tube 5 add piece of

leg muscle

Test tube 6 add piece of

lung

e) From your results; state three conclusions from the experiment in (c )

...............................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................

Practical 16
You are provided with solution Z which is a plant extract and solution V. label six test tubes A, B, C, E and
F and put into each test tube 3cm3 of solution V.
(a)(i) To test tube A add 1cm3 of solution Z at once. Record the observations and the time taken for the
reaction to stop.
(ii) Repeat the procedure in (a)(i) with test tubes B,C and D in water bath of temperatures 30OC, 40OC
and 50OC respectively and enter all the results in Table 1.
Test tube Temp (OC) Observations Time taken for the reaction to
stop(sec)
A Room
temperature
B 30O C

C 40O C

D 50O C

(b) Solutions W and X are common laboratory reagents.

Add 5 drops of solution W into test tube E and 5 drops of solution X into tube F, and then add 1cm3 of
solution Z to each of the test tubes E and F simultaneously. Record your observation in Table 2 below.
Test tube Contents Observations
E

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(c) The concentrations of solution V have varied to give solutions V1, V2 and V3
Contents of test tube Observations

(d) Explain the observation you have made in test tubes

(i) A, B, C and D in (a):
Test tube A
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………….………………..……………………………………………………………………………………..
Test tube B
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..

Test tube C
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………….…………………………………………...………………………………………………………….

Test tube D
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………….……..……….
(ii) E and F in (b)
Test tube E:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………….……………………………………...…………………..…………………………………..…….
Test tube F:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(e) In part (c) where the concentration of V has been varied, arrange the solutions in order of increasing
reactivity, starting with the least reactive.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………

……………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) Giving two reasons, suggest the active substance in solution Z. (3mks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………….……………………………………………………….…………………………………………..….
(g) What properties of the active substance have been demonstrated? (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICAL 17
You are provided with suspension W and carbohydrate solution X, Y and Z. you are required to
determine the nature of solution X, Y and Z. and action of suspension W on them.
(a) Carry out the following tests and record your observations and deductions in table 1
Table 1
Tests soln Observation Deduction
Iodine test Xx

Benedict’s test X

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(b) Take 4cm3 of suspension W in a test tube and place it in a water bath of boiling water for 10 minutes.
Remove the test tube from the water bath and allow cooling. Label it boiled W.
Label seven test tubes 1 to 7. In each test tube, add contents as shown in Table II and leave to incubate
at the respective temperatures for 40 minutes.
Table II
Test tube Contents Temperature of incubation
1 Put 2cm3 of Yin 1cm3 of un boiled W Room temperature
3 3
2 Put 2cm of X in 1cm of un boiled W Room temperature
3 Put 2cm3 of Y in 1cm3 of un boiled W 40
3 3
4 Put 2cm of X in 1cm of un boiled W 40
5 Put 2cm3 of Z in 1cm3 of un boiled W 40
3 3
6 Put 2cm of Y in 1cm of boiled W 40
7 Put 2cm3 of X in 1cm3 of boiled W 40
After incubation, carry out the Benedict’s test on the contents of each of the seven test tubes using
1cm3 of the test tube solution and 1cm3 of Benedict’s solution in each case. Record your observations
and conclusions in Table III.
Table III
Test tube Observation Conclusion
1

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(a)Explain your observations in test tubes:

(i) 1, 3 and 5.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..……………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..…
(ii) 2, 4 and 7
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………….…….………………………………………………………………………….….
(c)(i) What conclusion can you draw about the identity of carbohydrates Yand X?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………..…………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……

(ii) Suggest a further test you would carry out to confirm the identity of Y.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………….………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii) Suggest the nature of W
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……

PRACTICAL 18
You are provided with solution X and specimen W.
(a) Cut specimen W into four uniform sized smaller cubes. Label the cubes A, B, C and D.
Treat cubes A, B and C as follows;
A-Boil in water for 1 minute, remove and cool.
B-Cut into four small pieces and boil in water for 1 minute, remove and cool.
C-Chop into small pieces and crush into fine paste, boil in 3cm3 of water for 1 minute and cool.
Then crush materials A, B and D separately into fine paste and add 3cm3 of water to each to make
extract.
i) Carry out the tests in the table below and record your observations and time taken for the reaction to
cease in the table below. (13mks)

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Experiments Observations Time taken in seconds

3
(1) to 2cm of solution X add
2cm3 of extract A

(2) to 2cm3 of solution X add

2cm3 of extract B

(3) to 2cm3 of solution X add

2cm3 of extract C

(4) to 2cm3 of solution X add

2cm3 of extract D

(5) to 2cm3 of solution X add

10 drops of HCI,
followed by 2cm3 of
extract D

ii) Giving one reason, suggest the nature of solution X (2mks)

Nature of solution X
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………
Reason
………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………

…………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
i) explain your observation in tubes 1,2 and 5 (8mks)
Tube 1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………...........
Tube 2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………….………………………………………………..…………………………………………..………....
Tube 5
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....
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iv) From your observations in table 1, state two properties of the active substance investigated in the
experiments.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b)(i) Extract W was prepared from specimen W. using the chemicals and reagents provided carry out
tests to determine the composition of extract w and solution e. record your tests, observations and
conclusions in table below.

Tests Observations Conclusion

BIURET TEST E

STARCH TEST E

(ii) To 2cm3 of E add 2cm3 of extract W and incubate at temperature 370C-40OC for 50 minutes. Then
repeat the tests in (b) (i) above. Record in the table below (5mks)

Name of the test Observation Conclusion

(i) Explain the results in table above. (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………....

(ii) From your observations in (a) and (b) comment on the biological role(s) of specimen W. (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………..………………

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PRACTICAL 19
You are provided with specimen B
(a) Using a scalpel, peel the specimen then cut four cubes from it. Cube B1 measuring, 10mm,B2 20mm
,B3 25mm and cube B4 measuring 30mm.
i) Immerse each cube completely in a beaker containing concentrated iodine solution and leave for 50
minutes. After 50 minutes remove the cubes from the solution and wipe them using a blotting paper.
Using a razor blade, cut each cube into two halves. Using one half of each cube, measure the distance in
mm, across the uncoloured portion as indicated in fig .1

(ii) Calculate the surface area, the volume and the surface area to volume ratio of each tube in table 1.
Show your working clearly in the table below. (3mks)
Table I
cube Volume of Surface area/mm2 Surface/volume ratio Distance ,d /mm
cube/mm3
B1

B2

B3

B4

(iii) What physiological process in observed in (i) (01mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………
(iv) How do the results in (ii) relate to the physiological process named in (iii), in living organisms?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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c) Using the same pair of axis, plot a suitable graph to represent the above data (consider distance
travelled and surface area /volume ratio
(d) Cut a very thin slice of specimen B using a sharp razor blade. Place the slice on a slide in a drop of
water irrigate with iodine solution. Observe the slice under the medium power of a microscope.
(i) Draw and label the three adjacent cells observed (06mks)

(ii) Giving a reason, suggest the name of the tissue observed (02mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
(iii) From your observation, state the function of the tissue observed (02mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

(d) Using a mortar and pestle, crush the remaining piece of specimen B. add 10cm3 of water to it, stir
then decant the liquid part into a test tube.
(i) Carry out tests for proteins, starch and reducing sugar on the solution, using the reagent provided.
Record your tests, observations and conclusions in Table II.

Table II (10mks)
Test Observation Conclusion
Protein test

Starch test

Reducing sugar test

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(ii) To 5cm3 of solution B, add 2cm3 of solution Y provided. Incubate in a water bath at 37-40OCfor 10
minutes. Repeat the tests in Table II above using the incubated mixture.
Record your observations and conclusions in Table below. (6mks)
Test for; Observations Conclusion
Protein test

Starch test

Reducing sugar test

(iii) From the results in(c) (ii) suggest the nature of solution Y. (02mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………
IV) State one property of solution Y by the results in(c) (ii)

……………………………………………………………………………...…………………….……………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...

PRACTICAL 20
Solution P1,P2 and P3 are extracts of different plant organs .carry out the following tests in tables 1,2,3
and 4 to determine the nutrient content of each solution. Record your tests and observations in the
tables.
i)Benedict’s test Table 1
test Observation
P1

P2

P3

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ii) Biuret test Table 2

Test Observation
P1

P2

P3

iii) Iodine test Table 3

Test observation
P1

P2

P3

iv) DCPIP test Table 4

Test observation
P1

P2

P3

b) From your results suggest the plant parts that the solutions were obtained .explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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c) b) Label test tubes 1, 2 and 3. Treat the test tubes as shown in table 2 below

Test tube Contents

1 2 cm3 of solution S + 4cm3 of solution P1

2 2 cm3 of solution S + 4cm3 of solution P2

3 2 cm3 of solution S + 4cm3 of solution P3

Incubate the three test tubes at 37-40 0C for 30 minutes. After 30 minutes, carry out the tests in table 5
on the contents of each test tube as indicated to establish the effect of solution S on the nutrient
concentration of extracts P1, P2 and P3. Record only your observation in the table 5. (4.5 marks)
Table 5
TEST CONTENT OF OBSERVATIONS AFTER 30 MIN
TEST TUBE
Iodine test 1

Biuret test 1

DCPIP test 3

i) Explain your results of the tests with contents of test tubes. (04marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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ii) State one property of substances which was being investigated. (01 mark)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
ii).Explain your results of the tests with the contents of
Test tube P1
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..
Test tube P2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………….…………………………...
Test tubeP3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii).From your results in ( c) (i) ,state two properties of the active substance in extract C.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Practical 21
You are provided with specimen S(about to ripe orange).You are required to carry out tests on the
specimen using the procedure provided ,then answer the questions that follow.
Procedure
 Label five test tubes as A, B, C, D and E.
 Peel specimen S, choose five large locular segments and separate them individually.
 Squeeze the juice from segment into a test tube labeled A
 Place the remaining four segments in a beaker and when it starts boiling, start a stop clock.
 Remove the segments from the boiling water one at a time ,after a minute ,4minutes ,6 minutes
and 10 minutes ,and place them in a petri dish .(take care to note which segment has been
boiled for how long)
 After the segments have cooled, squeeze, the juice from each of them into labeled test tubes as
indicated in a table below.

Duration the segment has been boiled(minutes) Test tube into which juice is squeezed
1 B
4 C
6 D
10 E

A) Carryout the following tests using the juices prepared.

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To 2cm3 of DCPIP solution in the test tube add the juice from test tube A, drop by drop using a dropper
,and record the number of drops required to decolourise the DCPIP solution, a table below.
(5mks)
Test tube containing Duration the segment Number of drops of juice needed to
juice Was boiled (minutes) decolourise DCPIP)
A 0

B 1

C 4

D 6

E 10

a) Represent your result on a graph, in the space below. (11mks)

c)(i)State the conclusion drawn from these results (1mk)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………
ii) State two explanations for your results (5mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii) Suggest how one of the suggestions in (c) (ii) can be verified (2mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d) What is the significance of your results from the tests (1mk)

............................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................

PRACTICAL 22
You are provided with solution X, Y, and Z which are extracts of a plant tissue, at different
concentrations solution Q.you are to carry out tests using the solutions and answer the questions that
follow.
a) in a 10ml measuring cylinder ,add 3cm3 of X followed by 2cm3 of Q and start the stop clock .observe
the reaction and record the volume of the contents including the froth, every 20 seconds for 60 seconds
.in table below .repeat the procedure with solutions Y and Z record the results in the table. (6mks)

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Time(s) Volume of mixture of (X + Q) Volume of the mixture of Volume of mixture

cm3 (Y +Q)cm3 of (Z +Q)cm3
0

20

40

60

b) i)using ,same axes represent your results in a graphical form in the space provided below. (12mks)

ii) Using the graph in (b) (i) ,calculate the rate of reaction for each mixture .show your working. (3mk)
X+Q
……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………

Y+Q
…………………………………………………………….……………………………………..…………………………………….………………………

Z+Q
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………..…………………….

c) i) state what is being investigated in the tests (1mk)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………

ii) Explain the results of your tests (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

PRACTICAL 21
You are provided with specimens P (sprouting P) and Q and solutions X, Y and Z. using the solutions, you
are to carry out tests on the specimens. Peel specimen Q then cut from it four cubes of measurements
and label as indicated below.
0.5 cm x 0.5cm x 0.5 cm, label K
1.0 cm x1.0 cm x1.0 cm, label L
1.5 cmx1.5 cm x1.5 cm, label M
2.0 cm x2.0 cm x 2.0 cm, label N

Prepare an extract from each cube as follows:

Grind the cube in a mortar into a paste then add 10cm3 of distilled water stir, leave to settle and decant.
Label each extract accordingly.

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(a) Label four test tubes as 1, 2, 3 and 4 and add contents to each as shown in table 1.Record your
observation and deductions in the table. (6marks)

Table 1

Test Contents Observations Deductions

tube
1 2cm3 of Z and 2cm3 of K

2 2cm3 of Z and 2 cm3 of L

3 2cm3 of Z and 2 cm3 of M

4 2 and of Z and 2cm3 of N

(b) Use extract N to carry out further tests in Table 2.Record your observations and deductions in the
table. Table 2

Tests Observations deductions

(i) To 2 cm3 of Z add 2 cm3 of N
that has been boiled for 5 minutes
and cooled.
(ii) To 2 cm3 of Z add 2 cm3 of N
followed by 2 cm3 of X.

(iii) To 2 cm3 of Z add 2 cm3 of N

followed by 2 cm3 of Y.

(c) Explain your results.

(i) In table 1 (6marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

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(ii) In Table 2

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….…

(iii) From the tests in Tables 1 and 2, state the factors that were being investigated. (3marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………...…………….…
c)Peel specimen P and from it cut a cube of 1.0 cm x 1.0cm x 1.0 cm and make an extract from it in the
same way you prepared earlier extracts. Label the extract P.
i) Carry out the following tests to determine the relative abundance of starch, reducing sugar and
proteins in extracts P and L prepared in (2a).
ii) Record your observations and deductions for each extract in Table 3
Table 3
Tests soln Observations conclusions
Starch test P

Reducing sugar: P

Protein test P

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(ii)Explain any differences between the contents of P and L observed in table 3

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..….

PRACTICAL 23
You are provided with material V and solution X which contains different food substances. Carry out the
following tests to identify the food substances in solution X

Test Observation Deduction

i) Iodine test

ii) Benedict’s test

iii) protein test

vi) To 1cm3 of the liquid add 5 drops

of acidified silver nitrate solution.

Wet your fingers and open material V; tie one end tightly using a thread; pour 5 cm3 of solution X into
material V then tie the second end of the tube firmly. Wash the outside of the tubing with tap water to
remove any external traces of the mixture. Place the tubing in a boiling tube containing 8cm3 of water.
Place the boiling tube in water bath maintained at 370 -400C using a thermometer. Leave the experiment
to stand for 25 minutes.
Set up of the experiment

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At the end of the 25 minutes

Initial volume/cm3

Final volume/cm3

Difference in volume/cm3

a) Measure the final volume of the water in the boiling tube. (01 marks)
i) Explain the difference in volume between the final and the original volume.

…………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………
ii) Give an example of the process explained in (ii) above occurring in the plant cells and animal
cells (02marks)
Plant cells
……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………
Animal cells
……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………

b) Carry out the following tests to identify the food nutrients in the water from the boiling tube. Record
your observations and conclusions (08marks)

Test Observation Deduction

i) Iodine test

ii) Benedict’s test

iii) protein test

vi) To 1cm3 of the liquid add 5 drops

of acidified silver nitrate solution.

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c) Explain your observations for tests ii) and vi) above.

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………

d) explain your observations for tests i) and iii)

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

e) The experiment is a model representing how molecules move at particular organs in the body. State
with reasons two parts of the body where such movement occurs.

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….………………………….……………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………
Question 24
You are provided with solutions X, Y, Z and W. Carry out tests to determine the food nutrients contained
in solutions X, Y and Z. Thereafter investigate the action of solution Z and W on solutions X and Y and
then action of solution W on solution Z following the instructions provided.
a) Carry out Iodine, Benedict’s and Biuret tests on solutions X,Y and Z. Record your tests, observations
and deductions in table I (18 marks)
Table I
Test Soln Observations Deductions

(i) Iodine test X

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(ii) Benedict’s test X

(iii) Biuret test X

b) Label 6 test tubes as X1, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4 and Z1. Treat the test tubes as shown in table 2 below.
Table 2

Test tube Contents

X1 3 cm3 of solution X + 2cm3 of solution W
Y1 3cm3 of solution Y+ 2cm3 of solution W
Y2 3 cm3 of solution Y + 2cm3 of solution Z
Y3 3 cm3 of solution Y + 2cm3 of solution Z+ 5 drops sodium hydrogen carbonate solution
Y4 3 cm3 of solution Y + 2cm3 of solution Z+ 5 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid
Z1 2 cm3 of solution Z + 2cm3 of solution W

Incubate the mixtures at a temperature of 370C – 400C for 1 hour (proceed with other work for
meantime). After the time duration, carry out Starch test, Reducing sugar test and protein tests on the
contents of test tubes and record your observations and deductions only as indicated in Table 3

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Table 3 (16 marks)

Test Test Observations Deductions
tube
Iodine test
X1

Benedict’s test
X1

Z1

Biuret test
X1

Y1

Y2

Y3

Y4

c) Suggest an explanation for your results in (b). (04 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………

………………………………………..………………………………….……………………………………………………………………..……………

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Question 25
You are provided with specimen labeled T. Solutions A1 A2, A3 and A4, filter paper and other
requirements and reagents
a) Peel specimen T obtain 2 pieces of tissue, each measuring 2cmx 2cm x 2cm.
i) From filter paper, measure and cut out five (5) square pieces each measuring
5mm x5mm. Place in a dry Petri dish.
Obtain one piece, cut it into smaller pieces, and crush it in a mortar, add 15cm3 of H2O and warm the
mixture. Then decant into a small beaker. Use this extract to carry out food tests using DCPIP solution,
CuSO4 solution, iodine solution, NaOH solution; Benedict’s solution. Record the tests; observations and
conclusions in table I.
TABLE I
Test Observation Conclusion
STARCH TEST

BENEDICT’S TEST

BIURET test

Vitamin C test

b) Cut the second potato piece into smaller pieces, crush it in a mortar and then add 10cm3 of water.
Continue to grind and leave to settle for 2 minutes. Decant off into another Petri dish. Proceed as
follows;
i) Label test tube as A1 , A2, A3 and A4. Into each add 15cm3 of corresponding solutions
ii) Remove one square piece of filter paper and soak in the extract in Petri dish. Use glass rod (or spatula
or forceps) to remove and introduce into solution in test tube A1. As you start a stop clock. Stop the stop
clock when it is back to the surface. Repeat with A2, A3 and A4.
For each, record in a table the time taken and observation. (04 mark)

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Test tube Observations Time taken for the filter paper

to reach on the surface (sec)
A1

A2

A3

A4

c) What is contained in specimen T? (02 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………..………
d) Using results of b ii) above.
i) What is the experiment about? (02 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………

i) Describe your observation in A4 (03 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………

……………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………….……………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………

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iii) Explain the differences (if any) in your findings in the experiment (04 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………

a) What is the importance of specimen T? (03 mark)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

DETERMINATION OF MAGNIFICATION OF A MICROSCOPIC DRAWING

View the specimen using a given objective lens (magnification power) like medium power view and draw
the specimen. Remove the specimen and place a transparent meter rule to measure the field of view
Record the size of the field of view in millimeter (mm). The size of the field is equivalent to the actual
size of the specimen .convert the size of the field of view into micrometer (µm),(1mm=1000 µm).
Measure the size of drawing in millimeter and convert it into micrometer.

The magnification of the drawing = size of the drawing (µm)

Actual size of the specimen (µm)

If a part of the drawing is drawn, calculate the actual size of the part drawn (it can be one cell) and
record it in micrometer .then work out the magnification of the drawn part as shown for the whole
specimen above.
For example .if 10 cells are viewed in a field of view of 2mm, the actual size (length) of the one cell
drawn is.
2mm
10 cells = 0.2mm
Thus the actual size (length) of ONE cell is 0.2mm x 1000 =200µm
Suppose the length of one cell drawn is 4mm, the length of the drawn cell in micrometer is
4 x 1000 =4000µm

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Thus the magnification of the drawing = The length of the drawing (µm)
Actual length of a cell (µm)
= 4000 µm
200µm
= X20

The common specimens used under this section are;

 Plant organisms e.g. Rhizopus (bread moulds) Algae (spirogyra), Bryophytes (moss) and other
plants.
 Plant structures like leaves, stems, and roots, flowers and seeds .when studying plant structures,
consider the external features.

KINGDOM: FUNGI

Reason: Body made up of (fine) filaments/hyphae

Phylum: Zygomycota

Reasons
 Sporangiophore/vertical hyphae/stalk with round sporangium
 Network of branching hyphae/mycelium/stolon/horizontal hyphae

DESCRIPTION OF RHIZOPUS
RHIZOPUS (BREAD MOULD)
Body made up of mesh work/network; of fine/thin slender; long/elongated filaments/hyphae/fibres;
some upright/vertical/sporangiophore; others horizontal/stolon; vertical
hyphae/upright/sporangiophore with spherical/round /swollen/large structure/sporangia; at their tips;

Classification of Rhizopus species

Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Zygomycota
Class Zygomycetes/phycomycetes

Order Zygomycetales/murals

Genus rhizopus, mucor

STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF RHIZOPUS

It consists of a mass on thin branching, threadlike structures
known as mycelium, long/enlongated,slender/thin
threadlike vertical filament/hyphae called sporangiophore,

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terminating into a spherical/round, smooth/rough, black/brown called sporangium/spore case.

Mycelium
It consists of stolon or linking hyphae/horizontal hyphae or filament and rooting hyphae the rhizoids.
Stolon is long, slender/ thin/fine, branched and forms a net work of hyphae called mycelium. Mycelium
has a large surface area for support.
Rhizoids are numerous, thin, pointed and slender, they are
 Thin/pointed to easily penetrate the substratum.
 Many numerous to increase surface area for absorbing nutrients.
 To easily absorb nutrients easily by reducing diffusion distance.

Sporangium (spore capsule)

It is ball shaped or bulbous or spherical, swollen, and dull coloured or black.
Rhizopus is found in moist places to avoid desiccation. It is smooth, thus it can easily lose water leading
to desiccation if exposed to high temperatures.
The nutrition of Rhizopus is heterotrophic due to lack of chlorophyll.

Adaptations of rhizopus to survive in its environment

 Long sporangiophore/vertical/hyphae to expose sporangium for spore dispersal
 Thin/slender sporangiophore for flexibility to increase chances of spore dispersal
 Large/swollen sporangium to store/produce many spores to increase chances of
reproduction/propagation
 Thin/pointed tip of rhizoids for easy penetration into substratum
 Many stolons for faster colonization/propagation
 Numerous sporangia to produce large amounts of spores;
 Many horizontal filaments/hyphae/stolons to spread out for easy colonization;/nutrition
 Numerous rhizoids for anchorage/food absorption
Limitations that the rhizopus face in its terrestrial environment
 Thin so easy loss of water
 Lacks protective structures against water loss
Economic importance

 They enhance recycling of nutrients in an ecosystem by decomposing dead organic matter.

 Some species of mucor produce enzymes that ferment sugar and so used in production of
alcohol /breweries.

Phylum: Basidiomycota e.g mushroom

 Has septate hyphae
 Has large cap/pileus; with numerous gills/lamella
 Has a stalk/stipe; body made up of fine filaments/hyphae, with rooting
hyphae/rhizomorpus/rhizoids; sheet like structures under the cap/lamella;

Adaptations of mushroom
 At the ends of these hyphae there are swellings/ sporangia which contain spores for propagation
 Numerous filaments/a Net work of hyphae for anchorage

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 Numerous rhizoids to increase surface area for absorption of food nutrients

 Thin rhizoids reducing the diffusion distance during absorption of food and easy penetration of
the substratum.
 Thick and short stalk for firm support of the basidium
 Thick outer cuticle on the basidium to prevent dessication
 Numerous membranes/ gills on the lower surface of the basidium increasing surface area for
spore production
 Membranes on the lower surface of the basidium to avoid dessication.

LICHENS
Crustose/crust-like /flattened body; undifferentiated body; has hyphae/filaments/rhizoids;
lobed;/regulary shaped
Adaptations lichens
1. Numerous lobules which can break off and develop into a new lichen dispersing the alga and fungus
together
2 Numerous soredia containing spores for propagation
3. Hyphal filaments for support on to the substratum and for absorption of water/ mineral salts.
4. Broad to increase surface area for trapping a lot of solar energy for the alga to carry out
photosynthesis
5. Thin to reduce on the diffusion distance of the gases during gaseous exchange.

ADAPTATIONS
1. Green round algal cells for absorption of
sunlight for photosynthesis
2. Numerous fungal hyphae for protection of
the algal cells from drying out
3. Elongated fungal cells to offer protection of
the algal cells
4. Numerous hyphal filaments for anchorage
and absorption of water

KINGDOM: PROTOCTISTA EXAMPLE: SPIROGYRA

Kingdom Protoctista  Unicellular/single celled

 Numerous identical cells
Phylum Chlorophyta  Spiral chloroplast
 Filamentous/thallus/ filamentous body
 Septate filaments/Septate cells/cells joined end to end
Class Chlorophyceae
Order zygnematales/conjugales
Genus Spirogyra

Structural characteristics of spirogyra

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 Each filament is a chain of rectangular cells, joined end to end/separated by end walls.i.e Its
filaments are separate lengthwise.
 It has thick cell wall.
 It is long, unbranched and filamentous.
 It has long spiral shaped chloroplast.
 It has numerous small circular pyrenoids.
 It has a large vacuole.
 It has thin cytoplasm.

Adaptations of spirogyra to survive in its environment

 Long filamentous for increased surface area for absorbing sun light for photosynthesis.
 The cells are joined end to end to ease fragmentation or sexual reproduction and for flexibility.
 It has long spiral chloroplast to increase surface area trapping sun light for photosynthesis.
 It is a thin filament for easy floating on water.
 It has numerous pyrenoids to store much food.
 It has thick cell wall for protection/preventing bursting.
 Septate/segmented for easy fragmentation/propagation
 Filamentous for easy diffusion of nutrients/materials

Economic importance.
 Spirogyra / algae are the primary producers in fresh water ecosystems.
 They release oxygen into the water for use by aquatic organisms.

PLANTS AND THEIR EXTERNAL STRUCTURES

MOSSES
The moss plant is found in the main plant group (phylum) called Bryophyta due to possession of a
 Spirally arranged leaf like structures/simple leaves /false leaves
 Body differentiated into simple leaves and stem attached to gametophyte anchored by
rhizoids
 Spore bearing capsule/sporangium at the end of the seta/stalk
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Bryophyta
Class Musci
Genus Funaria
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Class: Musci
Reason:-
 Small sized; stem with spirally arranged leaf-like structures;
 Presence of thin rhizoids;
 Prominent spore bearing capsule;

Adaptations that enables it to survive in its habitat

 It has numerous rhizoids for anchorage and absorption of water from substratum
 It has a large /swollen spore capsule to produce numerous spores allow quick colonization of
sporophyte on the land.
 Has long seta/stalk to raise the spore capsule high for easy dispersal of spores
 Has spirally leaves to increase surface area/exposure to sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Numerous leaves to increase surface area for light absorption
 Thin rhizoids to ease absorption of nutrients
 Large/swollen sporangium to store many spores
 Erect stem to expose leaves for photosynthesis
 Erect/upright seta to expose sporangium for easy dispersal of spores
 Thin seta for easy swing for dispersal of spores
HABITAT
Moist/damp/damp shaded terrestrial soil/tree
trunks/walls of houses/buildings
Moss plant is adapted to surviving in moist areas of
land due to possession of swallow rhizoids, very
short stalk and small leaves.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sporophyte is attached to the leafy gametophyte
It has Sessile/unstalked ovate, small sized, net
veined, hairy, pale green “leaves” which are spirally
arranged on a simple stem.
Economic importance
 Their decomposition increases soil humus
content/fertility.
 They add oxygen to the atmosphere and
remove carbon dioxide from it.

FERNS
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Filicinophyta/pteridophyta
Class Filicineae
Order Filicales
Genus Dryopteris
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PHYLUM: Filicinophyta/pteridophyta
Reasons
 Possession of relatively large leaves
 Sori underside/lower surface of the leaflets
 Numerous adventitious roots.

To describe the structure

 Differentiated into adventitious roots/rhizome; leaves/fronds; lamina divided into leaflets/pinna
with pinnules;
 Lower surface has sori/group of sporangia;
 It has large leaves (fronds) arising from a thin rhizome. The rhizome bears a mass of fibrous
adventitious roots.

Characteristics of fern plant

 It bears relatively large leaves
 It bears adventitious roots
 It bears numerous sori underside the leaflets
 It has along hard leaf stalks with vascular bundles

Adaptations of the fern plant to its environment

 It has relatively large leaves for losing excess water and absorbing more light for photosynthesis
 It has long adventitious roots for anchorages and for absorbing water
 It has numerous sori for producing many spores increasing chances of reproduction
 It has long leaf stalk to raise the spore case/sori high for easy dispersal of spores
 It has buds for vegetative reproduction

The leaves are compound, each consisting of the main axis (rachis)/have a thick base or petiole bearing
leaflets called pinnae, each of which is subdivided into pinnules.
The lower surface of the pinnae bears some clusters of sporangia.

PHYLUM: ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA/TRACHEOPHYTA/SPERMATOPHYTA (higher plants)

These are seed bearing plant with the following characteristics
 Body differentiated into roots, stems and leaves
 Presence of flowers
 Presence of vascular bundles

Angiospermophyta/Angiospermae
They are sub-divided into two classes
Class: Monocotyledoneae
Class: Dicotyledoneae

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Reasons basing on the observable features

Monocotyledoneae Dicotyledoneae
Parallel veined leaves. Has leaves with net work veins
Leaf sheath Has Leaves attached to stem by solid long stalk
Fibrous root system. Presence of one main root with numerous lateral
branches which is tapering and long
Narrow and elongated leaves Has Leaves with broad/large lamina
Vascular bundles distributed randomly Vascular bundles radically arranged on the ring of
distributed in the stem. the cambium.
Has a central pith and a clear cortex

Star arrangement of xylem tissues in whose arms are

the phloem tissue

THE STEM AND ROOT STRUCTURE

Drawing of a cross section of a Dicotyledonous Drawing of an internal structure of a

stem dicotyledonous root

These include; Parenchyma tissue, Sclerenchyma tissue, Collenchyma tissue and Epidermal tissue
Parenchyma tissue is characterized by having the following features.
 It is made of spherical or round cells.
 Its cells have thin cytoplasm.
 Its cells have large food vacuole.
 Its cells area closely packed.
 Its cells have starch granules.
 Its cell has thin cell wall.

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Functions of parenchyma cell

 It is used for storage of food due to possession of starch granules and large food vacuole.
 It is used for support when turgid due to being closely packed.


Collenchyma tissue

It is characterized by having;
 Cell with thick cell wall
 Polygonal (rectangular)cells
 Closely packed cells

Collenchyma tissue is used for support due to its closely packed cells with a thick cell wall.
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE
This tissue is characterized by having;

 Thick walled cells

 Hollow and elongated cells
 Cells with no cytoplasm
 Cells with narrow lumen
 Lignified cell wall.
 Polygonal cell tissue

Functions of sclerenchyma tissue

 It is used for support due to possession of a very thick
lignified cell wall.
 It cells are hollow for easy flow of materials.
 Its cells have a narrow lumen to facilitate capillarity

Epidermal cells
 Its cells are polygonal or rectangular
 It is thin and thus transparent.
 It cells are closely packed.
 They are Elongated
 Have thick cell wall
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Functions of epidermal tissue

 They are closely packed to protect inner tissue from physical injuries.
 Have thick cell wall for protection
 Elongated cells offer a large surface for protection.
NB
 When a cross section of an angiosperm stem is stained with an acidified pyloroglucinol, lignin in
the tissue s of sclerenchyma and xylem stains red or pink.
 When asked to draw a tissue plan of section observed under a microscope, only draw tissue lay
out without showing details, i.e. tissue plan of the description of the dicotyledonous stem.

INSECTS
Insects belong to class insect of kingdom animalia of phylum arthropoda.
About seventy five percent of all known species of animals are insects. They are found in various
habitats all over this planet, earth. They are in a great variety but share some general characteristics.
Some are beneficial to man and others are harmful to man.
Arthropods are divided into 5 classes i.e. lnsecta
Arachnida, crustacea, Chilopoda and Diplopoda
These are animals in phylum arthropoda with the following distinguishing characteristics.
 Have exoskeleton
 Have jointed legs
 Have segmented body.
Classification of selected arthropods is shown in the table below.

A table of classification for selected arthropods

Arthropods phylum class Order
Bee/wasps Arthropoda Insecta Hymenoptera
Soldier termites Arthropoda Insecta Isoptera
Housefly/mosquitoes Arthropoda Insecta Dipteral
Tick Arthropoda Arachnida Acarina
Cockroach Arthropoda Insecta Dictyoptera
Grasshoppers Arthropoda Insecta Orthoptera
Spider Arthropoda Arachnida
Sugar ant Arthropoda Insecta Isoptera
Butter flies/moths Arthropoda Insecta Lepidoptera
Beetles/weavils Arthropoda Insecta Coleoptera

Kingdom: Animalia (all the specimens)

Reasons: Presence of:
 sensory structures e.g. Eyes
 Mouth for feeding
 Structures for locomotion e.g.limbs

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Class: Insecta (housefly, worker bee, worker termite, grasshopper)

Reasons
 Three main body parts.
 One pair of antennae.
 Three pairs of limbs/appendages.
 Three thoracic segments (prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax)

Class: Arachnida(tick)
Reasons
 Two main body parts i.e. head fused with thorax, and abdomen
 Four pairs of limbs.
 Lack antennae

Housefly Worker beeWorker termite Grasshopper Tick

Order : Diptera Hymenoptera
Isoptera Orthopteran Acarina
Diet: Fluids e.g. faeces Fluids e.g.
Solid substances Solid Fluids e.g. blood
-Proboscis is nectar e.g. wood substances e.g.
Reason: expanded at the -Mandibles are grass -Chericerae have
tip to suck fluids.
-Glossa is sharp for cutting -Mandibles are hooks for
narrow at tip sharp for piercing animals
for sucking cutting
Transmission of Pollination Destruction of Destruction of Parasite on
germs that cause -Pollen baskets wood vegetation mammals
Ecological
diseases. on hind legs for -Hard mandibles -Sharp -Chelicerae have
role, and
-Hairy body attachment of for cutting wood mandibles for hooks for
how
enables pollen cutting grass piercing skin of
suited
attachment of mammals
germs
-Pit latrines -Bee hive - Termitarium Green grass Bodies of
Habitat: -Rotting garbage OR mammals
-Termite mound

DESCRIPTION OF BODY PARTS

Housefly Worker bee Worker termite Grasshopper Tick

-Rectangular, sooth
ovate/Triangular -Triangular dorsal surface, Fused with
Head –
shaped shaped brightly coloured, -Large thorax and
general
-Hairy -Hairy dorsal-ventrally abdomen
flat.
One
Large, Dull Large, Dull
eye: Large, Dull
coloured, coloured, smooth,
coloured, oval-
comma- protrude, oval-
shaped, dorso- No eyes Small
shaped, dorso- shaped, dorso-
laterally
laterally laterally
positioned.
position. positioned.

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Housefly Worker bee Worker termite Grasshopper Tick

Antenn
Short, hairy, Short, hairy, Short, not hairy,
a: Short, thin,
segmented, with segmented, segmented, blunt No antenna
pointed, jointed
bristles. bent ending
Hairy,
Mandibles are two,
proboscis is Mandibles are 2,
-Proboscis is hard, large,
pointed and short, pointed, 2 palps, 2
expanded at the serrated.
curved at the strong, curved, chelicerae,
Mouth tip. Maxillae are two,
end, mandibles sharp. Hypostome is
parts: -Large labium hairy
are two, small. Labial palps 1, barbed,
-Maxillary palp Labrum is one,
blunt for are 2, jointed, needle-like.
short, hairy. thin, hard. Labium
moulding short, hairy
is one, hairy.
pollen/wax
3 segments, hairy,
striped,
3 segments, Thick, box-like, Fused with
Halteres are 2,
Thorax: hairy, 3 segments consists of 3 fused head and
short, attached on
segmented, segments. abdomen
the third thoracic
segment.
Are 4, forewings
Four, flattened,
two, leathery,
membranous.
Wings 2, transparent, Wingless / no narrow, veined.
Inner wings No wings
network veined wings. Inner wings two,
have hooks on
thin/membranous,
the top edge
broad & veined
Has 6 legs, jointed
for flexibility,
6, hairy, jointed, Six, jointed,
pointed spined for
have glandular hairy legs.
3 pairs, jointed, protection.
pad between the Hind leg long, Eight,
Limbs: smooth, almost Hind legs are long,
2 claws. has pollen jointed, hairy
equal size. have large femur
Hind limbs are basket on tibia,
forcreating a lift
long pollen brush
force.have curved
claws for gripping
Segmented,
Segmented, hairy, Segmented, Fused with
Abdom narrow, has a Segmented,
pointed terminal segment thorax and
en: sting at the smooth.
posteriorly, short has cerci head
posterior end.
specim Weevil
Butter fly Sugar ant cockroach Millipede
en /Beetles
Two long club- Two, short Has Two, long, thin, Sharp mandibles,
Has a
shaped/knobbed antennae tapering antennae pair of long
Head rostrum/sno
antennae Two small sized Has two large segmented
region ut/boring
Two large compound compound eyes antennae
mouth pats
compound eyes eyes Two, large, Has eyes/oceli

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Two long Two serrated serrated mandibles Has curved labrum

maxillary palps mandibles, Two long,
Long coiled Two long segmented
proboscis segmented maxillary palps,
mandibles two segmented
Two short labial palps
segmented curved labrum
labial palps
4 viened,wings Two pairs
Outer wing thick, Hard/ thick
Thorax
No wings long & narrow, No wings outer wings;
Wings
Inner wing thin & longer thin
broad/large inner wings
6 jointed legs 6 jointed legs
6 jointed legs with Long with pointed
with curved with claws
curved claws and spines, curved Many jointed limbs
Limbs claws and and
sticky glandular claws, large sticky with curved claws
sticky glandular glandular
pad arolium
pad pad
Flattened and has a
Abdom Tapering Tapering
pair of ssgmented
en posteriorly posteriorly
hairy anal cerci

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THE EARTHWORM Habitat: damp /decomposing moist organic

It is found in phylum annelida matter/mud soils
Reasons Reasons
 has sharp/ bristle like chaetae in each  Segmented body for flexibility during
segment, movement
 has metameric segmentation  Has Pointed/tapering ends for penetrating
 presence of septa the soil/easy burrowing
 soft cuticle,  Has chaetae for locomotion/Numerous
 cylindrical body. chaetae for gripping onto mud
Class: oligochaeta  Stream lined body for easy movement in
Reasons damp soils
 Has two pairs of chaetae in each segment  Cylindrical body for easy movement in soil
 Presence of clitellum  Has Moist soft cuticle for gaseous exchange
It feeds on decaying matter of both plants and  Long body for easy movement in burrows
animals found in the soils. It is adapted to this and to increase surface area for gaseous
feeding habit due to possession of; exchange
 The mouth for swallowing food.  Mouth for swallowing food in moist
 Pointed ends for borrowing into the mud soil(decaying matter)
in searching for food.  Clitellum for carrying the eggs
 The anus foe passing out egesta containing  Anus for passing out egesta which even
the soil. contains soil
 The moist soft cuticle for borrowing into s
the mud for food
MILLIPEDE adaptations to living in this environment
Description  It has sharp and hard mandibles for cutting
The long body is cylindrical, segmented, covered food (litter)
by hard cuticles, bears two pairs jointed limbs on  It has ocelli for seeing
each segmented and dark coloured .the body  It has a pair antennae for sensitivity
segmented for flexibility, hard cuticles for physical  It has hard cuticle (exoskeleton) for physical
protection .numerous limbs for locomotion, and protection
dark cuticle for camouflage  It has jointed limbs for flexibility.
It is commonly found in the litter of the forest and  Its body is segmented for flexibility during
the garden which may moist . locomotion
The millipede is able to feed on the litter /plant  Its exoskeleton is dark coloured for
materials due to possession of hard shard camouflage.
mandibles used for cutting the litter.
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The importance of the millipedes in the  It has numerous limbs for fast locomotion
environment  It has cylindrical body for easy burrowing
 It causes decomposition as it feeds on the
litter.
 Its sticky egesta blinds soil particles hence
improving soil structure
 It improves soil aeration as it burrows
 It improves soil drainage as it burrows
 It adds humus to soils when it dies and
decomposes
 It is the source of food to other animals.
Importance of the earthworm to the environment
 The pointed ends makes it able to borrow into the soil in order to improve soil aeration ,soil
drainage ,mix up the soils and soften up the soils foe easy root penetration
 It is a source of food to other animal
Similarities between millipede and earthworm

Both earth worm and millipede have a mouth, anus and cuticles, structure for locomotion, segmented
body cylindrical body, and long body
Differences between earth worm and millipede

Earthworm Millipede
Has soft cuticles Has hard cuticle
Has no eye Has ocelli
Has no distinct head Has distinct head
Has chaetae Has true limbs
Has no mandibles Has mandibles
Has clitelllum Has no clitellum
Has no antennae Has antennae

TICK
Class: Arichnida
Body
 Four pairs of limbs/legs
 Body divided into two main body parts i.e Cephalo-thorax which is thick broad and has
hairs and abdomen
Eyes: NO compound eyes
Antennae: no antennae
Mouth parts: segmented and end in pincers/pointed/tapering tip

Adaptations of tick to its mode of life/as ectoparasite

 Legs with spikes/claws for firm attachment
 Tough,slipperly exoskeleton for protection against mechanical injury
 Dull/dark coloured for camouflage
 Hooked/curved mouth part for firm attachment
 Flattened body to fit on the body of the host for protection
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 Has sharp/pointed mouth parts for piercing

 Has sharp sucking mouth parts for sucking blood/food
 Sharp claws for clinging onto the host
 Has chelicerae for penetrating/piercing the skin of the host

FLOWERS
A flower is the reproductive organ of the plant. it consists of floral parts arranged in whorls or rings.
These are:
 The sepals together forming the calyx
 The petals together forming the corolla
 The stamen together forming the androecium which consists of anther and filament.
 The carpels together forming the gynoecium or pistil which consists of stigma, style and ovary.
These floral whorls are usually attached on a receptacle at the end of the flower stalk (pedicel)
Some flowers have an extra whorl of sepal like structures external to the calyx called epicalyx.
The reproductive parts i.e. stamens (androecium) and carpels (gynoecium) are the essential parts of a
flower.
All the other parts e.g. sepals, calyx and corolla are referred to as non-essential parts.
In flowers of most monocotyledonous plants, the sepals and petals are undistinguishable and are
collectively known as perianth.
Pedicel is the flower stalk and Peduncle is the inflorescence stalk.
Corolla tube is a tube formed by the union of lower parts of the petals e.g. in morning glory flower.
Petaloid – (describes coloured sepals (calyx))
TERMS USED IN FLOWER DESCRIPTION
Actinomorphic (regular) flower- Is a flower possessing radial symmetry and capable of division into
symmetrical halves by any longitudinal plane passing through the axis.
This is in a case where a flower can be vertically split through the center in any plane and all the
sections produced have identical parts.
Zygomorphic (irregular) flower- Is a flower possessing bilateral symmetry and capable of division into
symmetrical halves by only one longitudinal plane passing through the axis
This is in a case where a flower can be split into two identical sections in one plane only e.g. bean flower
Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower:-Is a flower possessing both male (stamens) and female (carpels)
parts.

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Unisexual flower-Is a flower possessing one sexual part i.e. either female or male. If such a flower has
only stamens, it is referred to as staminate. If it has only carpels (pistil) it is referred to as pistillate.
Dioecious plant-Is a plant in which staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on separate plants e.g.
pawpaw.
Monoecious plant-Is a plant which has both staminate and pistillate flowers e.g. maize.

The gynoecium .The gynoecium/ovary is said to be monocarpous if it consists of one carpel e.g. cassia.
Apocarpous if it consists of more than one free carpels and syncarpous if it consists of several fused
carpels.
A drawing showing the structure of a pollen grain (surface view) under medium power of a microscope
for:.

Adaptations
The pollen grain from a wind pollinated flower is
 small; which makes it light; so that it can be easily
carried off/blown by wind,
 The smooth surface reduces air resistance from one
flower to another.

The pollen grain from an insect pollinated flower is

 Large, to increase the surface area for attachment
onto the insect’s body,
 The spiny surface is to stick on the body of an insect
/stigma.
FLORAL FORMULA
This is a conventional formula showing the number of floral
structure and nature of the flower and its structure.
The following symbols are used in floral formula.
A floral formula is a method of expressing the number and
arrangement of the four whorls of a flower using standard
symbols.ie.

= actinomorphic
. . = zygomorphic
K = Calyx
C = Corolla
A = Androecium
G = Gynoecium
P = perianth (petal/C and sepal/K are not clearly
distinguishable/indistinguishable)

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Specimen Gynoecium Androecium Features of Petal s and

sepals
K-Maize flower
No gynoecium Three free stamen; free Dull coloured
filaments; anthers free; ;bisexual/staminate;
long; slender pendulous anthers hanging outside
smooth large bilobed the bracts;
brightly coloured and inflorescence/raceme/flow
loosely attached to ers are borne in
filament which are thin, pairs/spikelets; pendulous
long, flexible and slender stamens;zygomorphic;
Maize Inflorescence It consists of a main axis called peduncles which branches into many branches
that alternately attached to the peduncles to expose the florets for easy
pollination. Each branch bears numerous and paired spikelets which is also
alternately attached to the branches .The spikelets in the pair .one is
stalked/asessile and the other is sessile/unstalked.
The spikelets (florets) are alternatively attached to the peduncles and irregular.
Each spikelets bears two florets which are covered by bracts. The outer bracts
are called glume and are hairy, hard, tough and curved or boat shaped, the inner
bracts called Palea are membranous or thin, smooth, curved in wards and occur
in pairs .both inner and outer bracts are parallel veined and dark coloured.
L-Crotolaria One carpel; stigma 10 stamens ,nine fused into
long/flattened; hairy; stamen tube; which are
short style ;superior grooved; curved and long with
long curved smooth free short filaments, anthers
ovary bilobed; round; elongated;
brightly coloured
Bisexual ;irregular/zygomorphic; five calyx ;not of same size/two big/large ones;
corolla-five petals; two fused keel petals/3 free ones ;veined smooth and thin
petals
Androecium –ten stamen ;9 fused and one free; stamen part of the filaments
fused (9 fused) to form a stamen tube.long filament for the single stamen and
short filaments for the 9 stamens.
Two types of anther/7 elongated rounded and shorten
Monocarpous pistil; very short style and hairy in crotolaria

M -bougainvillea Each floret has a pistil Florets have eight, Long;

with a Elongated; thin/slender; free; smooth;
Superior; ovary with filaments and bilobed
short ;thin; style and ;round/circular anthers;
elongated ;hairy
stigma;

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inflorescence It consists of three asessile, bisexual, and zygomorphic florets all attached at the
end of the peduncle. Each floret is attached on inner upper surface along the
midrib of the bract. The pedicel of the floret is fused with the midrib of the bract
which is bright coloured, large and veined.Each floret has perianth which is dull
coloured and fused into funnel tube.Bracts; Large /broad; veined; thin; smooth;
tapering towards the apex
N-commelina Each Florets has Free stamen consisting of brightly
syncarpous with coloured;bilobed;elongated anthers that are
stigma trilobed ;hairy supported by long, thin;hairy middle way
attached on relatively and flexible filament.
long style thin and
slender and brightly
coloured ;superior
ovary and
An inflorescence It has one or few florets on the peduncle which are a sessile (stalked).Each floret
has a single, curved, hairy, dull coloured and parallel veined spathe (petal like
bract).Each Floret is stalked; bisexual; irregular /zygomorphic.; have
three,broad;veined,thin smooth;curved free brightly coloured petals and calyx
three; tapering veined; thin and hairy;
P- bidens pilosa Pistil with . It has five stamens with
long/elongated fused, bilobed;
inferior ovary and elongated/long anthers
two/forked fused; and short; filaments; with
hairy; stigma regular symmetry.
An inflorescence It has numerous sessile florets which are attached onto a flattened (cup shaped)
and expanded apex of the peduncle surrounded by a calyx - like involucres of
bracts.
Two types of floret occur, both sessile with fused corolla, free and spiny calyx and
an inferior ovary with one ovule attached at the base of the fruit.
The numerous, sessile inner florets called the disc or tubular florets are
arranged in the circular pattern around the centre and closely packed.
The disc or tubular floret are bisexual, Actinomorphic and consists of five fused
petals which form a tube hence the name tubular floret. Its petals have many
corolla projections.
It has five stamens with fused, bilobed, and elongated anthers and short
filaments, Pistil has long forked stigma.
The ray/outer florets are called ligulate floret in which the corolla tube is
extended and has no stamens and pistil (is sterile.) and are covered by numerous
overlapping and dull coloured bracts making the involucres.
’The ray (ligulate) florets are zygomorphic and found at the peripheral of the
expanded apex of peduncle. It consists of broad/open petals at the apex which
are tubular at the base.

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Lantana camara The florets have a Four Stamens with large;

syncarpous pistil that bilobed; elongated; ovoid
consists of shaped anthers attached
bilobed/bilocular/bica to a short; thin; fused with
rpel; knob-like; petals filaments.
obliquely attached
stigma to broad base;
superior; ovary by a
short; thin; style.
Inflorescence of The inflorescence consists of the thorny main axis/peduncle from which
lantana numerous; sessile/unstalked; bisexual; zygomorphic; florets/flowers attached on
a clubbed apex of peduncle at almost the same or different points. The
inner/young florets are arranged around the centre and closely packed while the
older florets are found at the peripheral of the expanded apex of peduncle.
All florets are enclosed by dull coloured; oblong/ovate; hairy; tapering; thick;
free; parallel veined; bracts
Floret
Each floret is bisexual; zygomorphic; sessile/unstalked and their petals are
brightly coloured; four; thin; curved; veined; lobed; and smooth; fused to form a
tube hence are tubular.
Florets have four stamens with large; bilobed; elongated anthers connected to a
short; thin; fused with petals filaments.
The florets have a syncarpous pistil that consists of bilobed/bilocular/bicarpel;
knob-like; obliquely attached stigma to broad base; superior ovary by a short;
thin style. All florets have thin/membranous fused and veined sepals. All the
florets are enclosed by dull coloured bracts.
Banana spathe The pistil is syncarpous, Flattened; elongated;
consists of inferior; elongated; grooved, bilobed, brightly
curved; and tapering ovary coloured and curved (shovel)
towards the base, with long; anthers and filaments are
curved; grooved style with long; flattened; and thick
trilobed stigma (3 fused
stigmatic surfaces) and
brightly coloured.
inflorescence It consists of a stout main axis/peduncle on which numerous; sessile/unstalked;
bisexual; , zygomorphic and clustered florets which are arranged in two rows
and attached at the base of inner surface of the dull coloured; prominently
parallel veined ,large ,thick(fleshy)and in ward curved/boat shaped spathe/bract.
Each floret has two perianth which are curved/boat shaped; parallel veined; dull
coloured and attached to the ovary.
One of the perianth is large and long while the other is short and small.
The pistil of the floret is syncarpous, consists of inferior, elongated and
posteriorly tapering ovary, elongated, grooved style with trilobed stigma (3
fused stigmatic surface)
Its stamens consist of long and slender filaments supporting flattened,
elongated, grooved, bilobed, brightly coloured and curved (shovel) anthers.

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Hibiscus flower Syncarpous pistil with Androecium consists of Calyx/sepals are Five,
Five carpel; and fused; Numerous; filaments fused with fused, taper towards
broad; hairy; sticky; a stamen tube; which is long; apex; parallel veined;
branched; stigma end of the filament are free; hairy; thick; and dull
attached to free; and attach anthers which are coloured;
broad base; superior bilobed; round and brightly
ovary by long; flexible; coloured;
thin; slender; free
style.
2/3 carpels; fused; Five stamens, long; free ;and
Morning glory/sweet stigma slender ;thin filaments ;hairy at
potato bilobed/trilobed; the base attached to the petals;
round; hairy style; filaments taper at the apex;
long; thin; superior bilobed; long; large Anthers
ovary round and
smooth

Guinea grass Two feathery brightly Three stamen; filament long ;thin;
coloured; long stigma; Anthers pendulous; dull coloured;
style is short; ovary bilobed large; long loosely
superior and round; attached to filament

Guinea grass Has main axis/peduncle/rachis with lateral branches of variable length reducing
inflorescence upwards towards the apex; attached oppositely/whorly/alternately having many
florets/flowers/spikelets.
some spikelets are single/in groups of 2/3 all having stalks which are of varying
length attached alternately on the peduncles and lateral branches/main axis
terminating into a spikelet.
Gynandopisis gynandra Slender; elongated; Free; long ; slender filaments
superior ovary; with with bilobed ; elongated
short /reduced; hairy anthers;
style; and bilobed;
hairy; spherical;
stigma;

Gynandra Individual un stalked flowers; attached along elongated main axis/peduncle;

inflorescence arranged spirally/alternately; with older flowers lowermost; and younger flowers
uppermost; ending at the same level;
Petals are Free; smooth; veined; narrow at base, and broad at the tip; calyx are
Free; hairy; taper towards the tip/boat shaped /curved inwards;

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Cassia it is monocarpous Each floret has numerous

Pistil; with elongated; stamens with filaments of
dull coloured; curved; varying length which bear
and superior ovary; bilobed, elongated, thick and
short style and hairy
curved anthers with variable
flattened stigma
sizes.
surface.

Cassia inflorescence It consists of numerous, bisexual, and zygomorphic florets attached to a

clubbed end of the peduncle. Florets have long stalks (pedicel).
Florets have curved, free (polypetalous), brightly coloured, large,
prominently veined and papery (thin) petals.
Male paw paw flower Ten; brightly Five; fused; short;
coloured; stamens tapering towards the tip;
fused with corolla veined; dull coloured;
tube; with large; Five; brightly coloured;
No Pistil/gynoecium bilobed; elongated fused forming a corolla
anthers attached onto tube towards the base ;and
short ; thin filaments; towards the apex they are
free and broad;
solanum/entengongo It bears lobed small Five; brightly coloured; Five; tapering at apex;
stigma, short hairless having short filaments, green in colour; free
style, and superior have large; elongated; (separate); bear spines and
ovary bilobed brightly dull coloured.Use of spine
coloured anthers is for protection against
predation.green colour is
for photosynthesis
Five; bright coloured;
fused; large (broad);
smooth; lower surface
covered with hairs; veined
and bear pollen guide;
Brightly coloured to attract
pollinators (insect).
large to provide a large
surface area for landing of
the insects,
A number following the whorl abbreviation=number of parts in the whorl .e.g. K5. Same number in
brackets = parts joined e.g. K (5)
K5 = five free sepals
K (5) = five fused sepals
G1 = flower has one inferior carpel
G1 = flower has one superior carpel.
= A link between two whorl symbols, one inserted on the other.eg
C (5) A5

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A∞ =numerous stamens (usually more than 12)

♀ = pistillate flower
♂ =staminate flower

= Bisexual flower

=position of main axis

P (3+3) = two undifferentiated whorls which are united.

Example: floral formula of cassia

K (5) C5 A10 G1
The floral formula of a hibiscus

K (5) C5 A∞G 5
K (5) = Five fused sepals or calyx
C = Five free petals or corolla
A∞ = numerous stamens
G(5)= Superior ovary with five fused carpals

Floral formula of bougainvillea flower

P(5)A8G 1

The number of each floral part is represented by numeral subscript to the symbol.

=petal in the corolla =single bilobed anther

=sepal in the calyx =gynoecium of four fused carpels

=used to connect fused parts

A FLORAL DIAGRAM is a floral map representing the different parts of a flower, their number, structure,
the relation they bear to one another and their arrangement on the mother aA floral diagram is
constructed on a series of concentric circles, one for each whorl (floral part).

On each circle, are drawn the various floral segments in their correct relative positions and showing
fusions of parts where these occur.
Standard symbols used in making the floral diagram representing the different floral whorls.

When constructing a floral diagram, hold the flower so that the pedicel is furthest from you and the
petals face you directly.

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DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE INFLORESCENCE AND FLORETS

INFORESCENCES;
Is a collection of flowers borne on the same main stalk or arrangement of flowers on plants.
Each flower is called is a floret.
A floret may be free or they be closed in the set of bracts.
An inflorescence also refers to the growth of many flowers on the same stalk. The stalk that bears the
flowers is called peduncle or main axis .It may be divided into branches of different length or not
divided.
Glume-is a bract like structure, two of which enclose a spikelet.
Lemma/lower/outer bract - is a small bract in whose axil arises a grass flower.
Palea/upper/inner bract - a small bract arising from the axil of a flower stalk, just above the flower

1. MAIZE INFLORESCENCE
The advantage of alternate arrangement of florets
 Is to expose the florets for easy pollination.
 The advantage of the floral arrangement of florets or spikelets
is that it makes the inflorescence large or conspicuous to the
herbivores for easy predation.
 The large anthers produce numerous pollen grains that make
pollination easy.
 The loose attachment of anthers to the filament makes
pollination easy.
 The long nature of filaments exposes the anthers hence making
pollination easy.

The drawing of panicum maximum floret Drawing showing Gynoecium of panicum maximum

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INFLORESCENCE OF GYNANDROPSIS GYNANDRA

This is common inflorescence with many florets which are alternately /spirally and individually attached
by long pedicel along pedicel along one main peduncle. The mature or lower florets have longer pedicel
than younger or upper florets making all the florets attain the same level each florets has;

Each floret has;

 No bracts
 Calyx/sepals: Five, green. Net Veined, hairy, free, tapering towards the tip/curved.
 Corolla/petals: Five, free, smooth, veined, narrow base and broad apex.
 pedicel :Long, smooth and bright coloured
 Stamens with long, slender, free, smooth filaments with elongated, bilobed, bright coloured
anthers.
 The elongated anthers produce large amounts of, pollen grains to enhance cross pollination. The
stamens are exposed to ease dispersing of pollens to enhance cross pollination.
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 Pistil with superior, elongated, hairy, slender ovary and short hairy style, and bilobed, spherical
stigma. The spherical stigma provided a large surface area for landing of the insects during
pollination.

Note .the bright coloured structural features of these features of this flower attracted pollinator leading
to cross pollination by insects.
The receptacle of each floret has distinct internodes and nodes to which floral structures are attached
.its stamens are attached to long internodes called androphore and the ovary is attached to internodes
called gynophore. This arrangement exposes the essential structures of the flower for easy pollination
leading to ensured higher chances of fertilization.

Drawing of the external features of gynandropsis gynandra

Note.
 The inflorescence that is pollinated by wind has
pollen grain which is small, round /circular and
smooth .being small reduces its weight so that it
can easily be blown by wind. The smoothness
reduces air resistance and hence blown by air
easily.
 The inflorescence pollinated by insects is large,
circular and spiky surface easily attach on to the
insect or stigma to easy pollination. The large size
of pollen provides a large surface area for
attachment to the insect.NB. The florets
considered above are aimed at acquainting the
students and the teachers with the necessary
information that can be used to analyze any other
flower and inflorescence.

Specimen Characteristics of androecium Characteristics of gynoecium

P Numerous; filaments fused with a Five carpel; and fused; broad ;hairy ;sticky stigma
stamen tube; which is long; end of the leads style long; flexible free superior ovary broad
Hibiscus filament are free and attach anthers base
flower which are bilobbed; round and brightly
coloured;
Q 10 stamens ,nine fused into stamen One carpel; stigma long/flattened;hairy;short style
tube; which are grooved; curved and ;superior long curved smooth ovary
Crotalaria long with free short filaments, anthers
flower bilobed;round;elongated;brightly
coloured
R Five stamens,long;free;and slender ;thin 2/3 carpels;fused;stigma
Morning filaments ;hairy at the base attached to bilobbed/trilobbed;round;hairy
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glory/sweet the petals;filamebts taper at the apex; style;long;thin;superior ovary round and smooth
potato bilobed;long;large Anthers
flower of S Three stamen; filament long ;thin; Two feathery brightly coloured;long stigma; style is
Guinea grass Anthers pendulous; dull coloured;bilobed short; ovary superior and round;
large; long loosely attached to filament
flower of T Three free stamen; free filaments;
anthers free; long; slender pendulous
maize smooth large bilobed brightly coloured No gynoecium
and loosely attached to filament which
are thin, long, flexible and slender.

FRUITS
These are mature fertilized ovary containing seeds. Some fruits develop from unfertilized ovaries and
are therefore seedless (parthenocarpy).
Features of a fruits
 Fruits have a pericarp (fruit wall).
 Two scars
 Have seeds(ripened ovules)
The fruits with dry pericarp are referred to as dry fruits (dry dehiscent and dry indehiscent fruits) and
the ones with fleshy pericarp are called succulent fruits.
Fruits are classified into two major groups, the false fruits that develop from the receptacle and ovary
like an apple fruit and the true fruits that develop from the ovary only for example mango fruit.
True fruits are divided into three groups;
 Multiple fruit which develop from several flowers whose ovaries fuse after fertilization like
pineapple.
 Aggregate fruits which develop from one flower with many free carpel/pistil like sun flower.
 Simple fruits .these develops from single flower/ovary with one carpel or many fused
carpels .e.g. .avocado, tomatoes.biden pilosa and maize grain.
Simple fruits are classified into two major groups depending on the nature of the pericarp.the dry fruits
and fleshy fruits.
Succulent /Fleshy fruits are the ones with the fleshy pericarp enclosing the seeds. Their pericarp is
distinctively divided into three layers, the pericarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
Succulent /fleshy fruits are classified into two groups .the berry and drup fruits.
a berry fruit has a fleshy pericarp with many seeds for example tomatoes ,and oranges .the many seeds
increase chance of dispersal by germination of few remaining seeds if most of the seeds are destroyed
.many seeds are cause faster multiplication of plants.
A drupe fruit has a fleshy pericarp with one large seed as shown in avocado and mango. The large seed
stores more food to increase the chances of dispersal by keeping the seed viable for a long period of
time (by increasing storage)

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CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE FRUITS

Fruits Structural description

P(mango/ Has one seed; enlarged seed ;relatively thick epicarp and hard ;thin endocarp; fleshy/succulent ;
Avocado) thick mesocarp; has one locule/ no septa ; the seed is attached to the placenta at the base; by a
long funicle/the seed is located in the centre of the fruit/centrally located in the fruit. Thus it has
apical or basal placentation
How it is Dispersed
Fleshy/thick mesocarp of the fruit is eaten and the seed is thrown away to another place
Adaptation for its being dispersed by the agent(animal)
Has brightly coloured pericarp/conspicuous to attract animals
Has fleshy/succulent mesocarp eaten by the animal
Has strong scent to attract animal
Q(Bean pod) Has dry pericarp; More than one seed /many large sized seeds; many locules; seeds are
attached along one margin of the pericarp/marginal placentation; smooth outer surface of
the pericarp; two sutures/lines of weakness;
Adaptations for survival
Has two sutures along which it splits open when dry to release the seeds easily
Has many seeds for fast multiplication
Has a large/big sized seed to store enough food to promote germination
How it is Dispersed
Has two sutures along which it splits open when dry to release the seeds to another place
Adaptation for self its being dispersed by the agent(self)
Has two sutures through which it splits open when dry to release the seeds
Seeds are loosely attached to one margin so as they are released easily
R (orange) Has Many seeds; thick endocarp; juicy endocarp; thin and spongy mesocarp; many locules; has
succulent/juice hairs; has citric acid glands/oil glands; Has thick epicarp; stony seeds ; Seeds are
radially attached to the central placenta/ placenta at the centre; Axile placentation
How it is Dispersed
The animal picks the fruit eats the succulent/fleshy endocarp and then throws away the seeds
to another place
Adaptation for its being dispersed by the agent(animal)
Has brightly coloured pericarp/conspicuous to attract animals
Has fleshy/succulent mesocarp eaten by the animal

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Has strong scent to attract animal

W(tomato) Has a thin/membranous epicarp and bright coloured pericarp when ripe: thick/fleshy
mesocarp; juicy/succulent pericarp; endocarp fleshy/succulent and divided into many locules
; has many septa; many hard small and slimmy seeds
Placenta: is fleshy, lobed and centrally positioned, thus it is Axile placentation.
its seeds have short funicle and are radially arranged around the central placenta
adaptation
 brightly coloured pericarp which attracts animals
 fleshy/succulent mesocarp which attracts animals
 slimmy/small seeds for easy swallowing
 hard seeds which resist digestion
How it is Dispersed
It has brightly coloured thick/succulent/fleshy pericarp when ripe which is eaten by the animal
the seeds resist digestion/not digested and passed out in faeces elsewhere or to another
place
S(cucumber) Has many seeds; divided pericarp or mesocarp and endocarp) placenta at the periphery/outer
side; fleshy/succulent mesocarp and endocarp; placenta at ¾ points; seeds arranged in regular
manner; locule divided/three locules/chambers ;has many septa; prominent long funicle
Seed arranged: Many seeds suspending/radiating/pointing inwards; at 3/4 points/sites; in a
regular manner

T(green pepper) Has many seeds; divided pericarp; placenta central; placenta arises from the base; locule
divided/has septa; seeds clustered on the placenta
Its locule is partially divided by septa.it has a free central and thick, spongy placenta arising
from the base. It has many hard flattened seeds which are clustered on the placenta. Thus it
has a Free central Placentation

U (paw paw) Has many seeds; divided pericarp; or mesocarp and endocarp; placenta peripheral/outer side;
fleshy /succulent mesocarp; papery/thin endocarp; rough seeds
Its pericarp is divided into mesocarp and endocarp. Mesocarp is fleshy and thick. The
placenta forms a thin lining around the inner wall of the pericarp and this is where the rough,
clustered seeds are attached radially and in a regular manner at the peripheral wall by short
funicle. It has one locule. Thus it has a parietal placentation
Schizocarp/ REASONS FOR BEING A SCHIZOCARP
lomentum  has transverse lines of weakness/ sutures
 has loments/ segments that contain one seed
 has separate compartments/ sections
How they are dispersed Has sticky hairs; which attach on fur/ clothes;/ body/skin of
animal while moving;/ passing and is droped/ removed off to another place/throws it
away to another place;

Dry fruits: these are fruits with dry pericap. They are divided into two groups the dry indehiscent fruits
and dehiscent fruits.

INDEHISCENT FRUITS: these fruits that lack sutures on their pericarp thus their pericarp cannot
break/dehisce/split to release the seeds when dry .
They are divided into various groups as follows;
1. Caryopsis: its testa is fused with the pericarp as seen in maize grain.

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2. Cypsela. It has pappus /persisting hairy calyx for example tidax procumbens.it is adapted to wind
dispersal due to possession of pappus (hairy calyx) which makes it float in air .it has one seed.
3. Achene .has one seed with a pericarp not fused with the seed coat .it has hooked persisting calyx
.hence it is dispersed by animal for example bidens pilosa.
It attaches onto the hairy body of the animal that removes and throws it away to cause dispersal.
4. Samara .its pericarp is modified into a wing structure that makes it float in the air like Jacaranda
nimbuifolia fruit leading to dispersal .it has one seed.

DEHISCENT FRUITS
These are dry fruits with sutures along which they split when dry to cast the seeds they are divided into
various groups depending on the number of sutures in their pericarp.
1. Schizocarp, they break transversely when dry into one seeded parts with sticky hairs on pericarp like
Desmodium and some cassia species.
2.Follicle; a fruit with dry pericarp which is formed from one carpel and splits down from one side.e.g
Sodom apple and cassia
3. Legume; dry pericarp with two sutures and many seeds for instance bean pod. When dry it splits
along the sutures (lines of weakness) to release the seeds .the seeds are attached along one margin of
the pericarp .hence it has marginal placentation.its seeds are enlarged with short funicle. The many
seeds increase chances of dispersal. It also leads to fast multiplication of plants (legumes)
4. Capsule; it has a dry pericarp with many seeds and with more than two sutures for examples Dutch
man’s pipe. When it is dry .it dehisces/splits along many sutures to release the seeds.
TABLE SHOWING LABELLED DRAWINGS SOME FRUITS

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GUIDING QUESTIONS ABOUT PLANT AND ANIMAL STRUCTURES

Practical 1

you are provided with specimen C; D and E Carefully peel off a single epidermal layer of cells from the
upper side of specimen C and Specimen D (from the fleshy leaf of an onion) using finger nail. Place a
drop of methylene blue on the side of the slide that is just touching the cover slip and the Mount a strip
from specimen D and C. Mount specimen E on a slide and the add a drop of water and observe under
medium power of a microscope.

a) Describe the structure of one of specimen E

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………

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ii) State the adaptations of specimen E to survive in its habitat

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………

iii) Draw and label two cells of specimen E and D .state the magnification and show how you calculated
your magnification

b) Give two differences observed between the cells from specimen E and from specimen D

specimen E specimen D

C) Now obtain the lower epidermal layer of cells from the leaf using the same procedure. Mount on a
microscope and observe under low power.Compare the number of stomata on the lower and upper
epidermis and give an explanation for the differences observed.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………

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Practical 2
You are provided with specimens X , Y and U who are plant parts. Examine the specimens using a hand
lens.
a) giving reasons from your observations from your observations:-

i) classify the specimens into the following taxa:

Specimen X (06marks)
Phylum
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

Reason
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Specimen Y
Class
………………………………………………………………………….….…………………………………………………………………………………

Reason
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Specimen U
Phylum
……………………………………….……………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………
Reason
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
ii) Suggest the mode of nutrition in specimen U. (02 marks)
Mode of nutrition
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Reason
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
b)Describe:-
i) The location of named structures used for reproduction in each specimen.
Specimen X (06marks)
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Specimen Y
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………

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Specimen U
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
ii) Two named vegetative structures in specimen Y (03 marks)

………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
b) Suggest one advantage of the location of the reproductive parts as described for specimen X and U
(02 marks)
Specimen X
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Specimen U
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
d) State one advantage and disadvantage specimens Y and U have in colonizing new habitats. (04 marks)
Specimen Y
Advantage
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Disadvantage
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Specimen U
Advantage
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
Disadvantage
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………

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e) Remove one leaf from specimen X observe the reproductive structure under low power
magnification.
i) Describe the structures observed (02 marks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Explain how the structure observed in e) i) above are adapted for reproduction. (01
marks)

………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….………

Practical 3
You are provided with specimen C , D, E, F and G
a) Classify specimen C (under the following taxa)
i) Kingdom……………………………………………………………..…...………………………………………………………………………

ii) Phylum…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………

iii) Class…………………………………………………………………………………….………………..…….…………………………………

iv) Order……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

v) Family……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b) Carefully examine specimen G.Give three characteristics, which make it to be classified in the class (iii)
above.
…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………
c) With the use of a sharp blade and a microscope, carefully cut off the proboscis of specimen D and
make a clear well labeled drawing.

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d) State four external structural observable characteristics of specimens, C, D, E, F and G.

Specimen Characteristics
C

e) Construct a dichotomous key to identify the specimens basing on the features of the thorax only.

…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

PRACTICAL 4 specimen A ,B ,C ,D ,E are flowers.

a) Examine A, B, C, D and E and write their floral formulae.

Specimen Floral formulae

A

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b) Draw floral diagram of A, B, C, D and E

C i) In the table below, use the, sepals, petals, symmetry, pistil, stamens, and others to write down the
characteristics of A, B, C, D and E
specimens sepals petals pistil stamens symmetry
A

ii) Using the characteristics above construct a dichotomous key to identify A, B, C, D and E

…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………
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Practical 5 Examine specimen L1-L5 provided L1 , L2, L3, L4, L5

a) i) State two observable features to show that these are the same plant organs :-
i) …………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) For each specimen, mention one way in which it is structurally unique from the others.
L1………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………

L2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…

L3……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

L4……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………

L5……………………………………………………………....………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) For specimens L2 and L3 only, give two:
i) Descriptive similarities
i…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii…….………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………
ii) Ecological advantages specimen L3 Has over L2
1…………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
c) In the space below, draw an outline of the lamina of specimen L1 and L3 at magnitude x 0.5
i) From the outline work out and actual area of lamina for each specimen
Specimen L2 specimen L3

ii).Express the size of the lamina as a ratio i.e. L2 :L3

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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iii) Comment on the ecological significance of the ratio to the plants from which specimens L2 and L3
were obtained.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) By limiting your self to the characteristics features of the lamina. Construct a dichotomous key which
can be used to identify the specimens
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Practical 6 Specimen P ,Q , R, S and T are fruits
a) i) cut specimen R-transversely in to two halves:
Draw and label quarter of one half of specimen R

ii) Observe the placenta of specimen R suggest two roles of placenta into the fruit.
1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....

2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..…………………………
b) Cut open the remaining specimens into two halves and examine them.
i) Tabulate differences in the placentas of specimen R and Q.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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ii) Describe the placentation in the specimen:

SPECIMEN DESCRIPTION OF PLACENTA

P:

Q:

R:

S:

T:

C) Construct a dichotomous key to identify the specimens in the given order (starts with P and end with
T)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICAL 7 Specimen B1 and B2 are plants collected from different habitats. Peel off a thin epidermal
layer from the upper and lower surfaces of each leaf .mount the peel in a drop of water on a slide .apply
a cover slip and examine with the surfaces of both leaves.
Enter your result in the table below.
Surface B1 B2
Upper

lower

a) i) Comment on the results in the table.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………..……

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ii) Make a simple labeled plan diagram of the tissues as seen in the section under low/medium power of
microscope.

b) i) What do your results suggest about the habitat of the plants from which the leaves were collected?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
iii) Name one anatomical structure seen in a(ii) above which enabled organ to carry out its functions.
Draw and label the structure

PRACTICAL 8 specimens Q, R, S, T and U are reproductive parts (inflorescence) of different plants.

a) Remove one of the outer most flowers, one flower from the middle part of specimen U. Using hand
lens examine the two flowers and state two differences between them. (2mks)
i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..
ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b) i)Using a hand lens examine a flower from each of specimens Q and R. Describe the structure of each
flower.
Flower from Q. (4mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Flower from R.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
i) State one advantage of specimen Q in reproduction. (2mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) State one advantage of specimen R over specimen Q in reproduction. (02mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
iii).How is specimen R adapted for pollination? (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Open up one flower from each of specimens Q and R. Draw and label each flower in the space in the
space provided.
Flower from Q (2mks)

Flower from R. (3mks)

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d) Construct a dichotomous key to identify specimen Q, R, S, T and U. (8mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Practical 9
You are provided with specimens; P, Q ,R ,S ,T and U. open specimen Q longitudinally and cut the rest
transversally.
a) Looking at the sections: Describe the arrangement of internal structures.
i)P
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
ii) Q

………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………
iii) R
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
iv) S
…..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b i) Give two internal features common to both specimens T and U. (2mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

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c) Draw and label a transverse section of specimen S and one half of specimen Q which is containing the
seeds.
Specimen Q

Specimen S

d).Limiting yourself to the internal features of the specimen ,construct a dichotomous key to identify
them. (10mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………..…..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Practical 10.you are provided with specimen C, D, E and F which are inflorescences.
a) Observe each specimen and describe the pattern of arrangement of florets.
C:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
D:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………

E:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………

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F:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

b).Remove a single floret from specimens C, D and E.

Examine the florets using a hand lens where necessary.
i).Give two descriptive features on each of the following floral parts of each floret.

Floral part Floret of specimen C Floret of specimen D Floret of specimen E

Pistil

stamens

Petals

Bracts

ii) With reference to the information in the table in b(i),state how the florets from specimens D and E
are adapted to their modes of pollination. (2mks)
Floret from D
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………

…………..…………………………………………...…………………………….………………………………….………………………………………
Florets from E
…………………………..………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c).Remove one floret from specimen F. Cut it symmetrically into two halves .observe the internal
structures using a hand lens. Draw one half of the floret and label only the essential reproductive floral
structures.

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Practical 11.you are provided with specimen B, C1 ,C2 ,D1 and D2. C1and C2 are each from a different
habitat and solutions A(0.0M),B(0.3M) and C(0.7M) which are of different sucrose concentrations.
a) State three observable differences between specimen C1 and C2. (03mks)
C1 C2.

b).Obtain a small piece of the epidermis from the upper surface of specimen B.Mount each epidermis in
a drop of water, one at a time. View under low power of a microscope, count and record the number of
stomata in a field of view, for each surface, in the table below
Specimen Surface Number of stomata
B upper
lower
C1 Upper
Lower
C2 Upper
lower

C) From your results in (a) and (b) above. Suggest the type of habitat for which each specimen was
obtained giving two reasons
B
….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………
C1
.……………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………...…..
C2
.………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ii) State adaptations of each specimen to its habitat stated in (c) (i)
B:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..…………………

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C1
:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…...

C2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………

d) Draw and label stomata from specimen C1 and C2. (10mks)

C1 C2

d) Label three microscope slides at their edges as A, B and C and on each slide, add a drop of the
corresponding solution. Peel three small pieces of the lower epidermis from specimen C1 and mount a
piece with the outer-side uppermost, in each solution on the slides. Leave the set up for 20 minutes.
After 20 minutes cover each mounted piece with a cover slip and observe under the low upper of a
microscope. Draw one stoma with its adjacent cells from each slide, in the space provided.
i) From slide A ii) from slide B

iii) From slide C

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g) Explain what is observed from each slide (09marks)

i) From slide A
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……
ii) From slide B
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………..……
iii) From slide C

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
h) (i) state one difference between specimen D1 and D2

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………….…………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………..……………………….
ii) Giving reasons, state two advantages of specimen D1 and D2

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

Practical 12 You are provided with specimens D, E, F, G and H.

a) State three observable differences between specimens D and G. (3mks).
Specimen D Specimen G
i)

ii)

iii)

b) Using a hand lens examine the tarsus of the hind of each of specimens F and G.
i) Draw and label the tarsus of each limb.( 6mks)

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ii) Give the ecological significance of the structure of each tarsus. (2mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Examine the mouth parts of specimens G and H, Using a hand lens.

i) Draw and label the mouth parts of specimens G and H (7mks)

ii) Relate the structure of each mouth part to its function on the specimen. (2mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………..……
d).using features of the abdomen only, construct a dichotomous key to identify specimens D,E,F and H.
(8mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….……

…………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….……

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Practical 13
You are provided with specimen K
a) Cut it longitudinally and examine it. Describe its internal structure (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….……

b).remove one of the leaves of specimen K.Strip off a piece of the inner most layer and place it on a slide
with a drop of water and cover with a cover slip. Examine under the medium power of microscope.
i) Describe the structure of a cell, clearly seen (2mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
ii) Now examine under lower power of a microscope, account and record the number of cells in field of
view. (2mks)
From left to right…………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………

From top to bottom…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

c) (i) remove the slide from stage ,measure the field of view using a transparent ruler and record your
results. (1mk)
Field of view……………………………………………………………………………..……………………………….mm

ii) Convert the diameter of the field into micrometers (µm).show your working (2mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………
iii) Calculate the actual length of the one cell in micrometers (um).show your working. (3mks)
………………………………………….………………………………..............................................................…………………………

………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………....................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................................

d) Return the slide having the tissue onto the stage, draw one cell from the tissue being observed under
the medium power of a micrometer. (03mks)

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e) Measure the length of your drawing in mm and record it. (1mk)

Length of drawing…………………………………………………………………………..…………………………mm
ii) Calculate the magnification of your drawing, show your working. (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
f) Amount a little piece of specimen L and view under the medium power of microscope.
Draw and label one cell. (5mks)

g) Explain how the structure of each of the cells from specimen K and L relate to their functions.
(4mks)
i)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………….………………………………..…………………………………………………………..………………………………

Practical 14

Specimen F1 and F2 are provided .examine the specimens using hand and answer the following
questions:
A (i) what common features would enable you place specimens F1 and F2 in the same group?
1………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….

2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………...……
b) for any three named floral structures, stated two descriptive features (9mks)
Floral structure Descriptive Features
F1 F2
1 i

ii

2 i

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ii

3 i

ii

ii) For specimen F1 only, relate the descriptive of structure name 1 in the table to the role-played in
specimen in specimen F1 (2mks)
Descriptive features1
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Descriptive features 2
…………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………
d) Give one functional advantage specimen (4mks)
i) F1 has over F2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………

…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
e) Remove one floret from F1.Examine using a hand lens.
Make a floral diagram of the specimen and give a suitable key. (5mks)

Practical 15 You are provided with specimen M. Cut thin transverse section through the root of
specimen M.Place one of the sections to a glass slide and add a drop of phloroglucinal followed by a
drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid or sulphuric under low power magnification of the microscope. A
hand lens may be used.
a) Draw a plan diagram to show the distribution of the coloured tissues?

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b) What substance in the role of the coloured substances to the plant?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) What is the role of the coloured substance likely to be found in?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Practical 16. Specimens R, S and T are inflorescence .examine the specimens using a hand lens where
necessary.
a) Describe the structure of the inflorescence and flowers of each specimen.
i) Specimen R
Structure of the inflorescence (4mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Structure of the flowers

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
Specimen S (4mks)
Structure of inflorescence
…………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….………………
Structure of flowers
………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………….…………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….…………………
iii).specimen T (4mks)
Structure of inflorescence
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
Structure of flowers
…………………………………………..…………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………
c) State one advantage and one disadvantage of the structural arrangement of the flowers of specimens
R and T. (2 mks)
i)R
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………….………………………………
ii)T
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………

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c) Using a hand lens, example one flower of specimen R displacing some structures where necessary to
expose all parts .Draw and label

Practical 17.
You are provided with specimen X and Y which are reproductive parts of flowering plants.
a) Remove a spikelet from specimen X and examine it using a hand lens

i) Describe the structures of the spikelet (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………
ii) Describe the features of X that promote the propagation of the plant from which it was
obtained.(4mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………..……
b) Examine specimen Y and state three structural features which are unique to specimen Y and not
found on X. (3mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………..………

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c) (i) Open up the spikelet of specimen X and expose the gynoecium.

Draw and label. (4mks)

ii) Remove the outer parts and expose the gynoecium of specimen Y (4mks)
Draw and label.

d) Observe the stigma of specimen X and Y. How are they adapted? (3mks)
i) Stigma of X
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………

……………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………..……………
Stigma of Y
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………….…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………..…..………..
e) i) obtain some pollen grains specimen X and mount it in a drop of water .view under the medium
power of a microscope.
Draw one pollen grain that can be seen clearly .do not label. (2mks)

ii) Repeat the procedure and view the pollen grains from specimen Y under the medium power of a
microscope. Without labeling, draw one pollen grain. (2mks)

iii) What is significance of the structure of each pollen grain? (6mks)

X……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………
y………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………

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Practical 18
You are with specimen K and M which are inflorescences.
a) Describe the flower arrangement on specimen M (1mk)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………
b) Pick one flower from each inflorescence and examine it using a hand lens .describe the structure of
each flower with respect to the specified parts as indicated in the table below (15mks)

Part of flower Flower from specimen K Flower from specimen M

Calyx

Corolla

Bracts

Stamens

pistil

c) What peculiar features of specimen M are not found in atypical flower (1mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d) What is the ecological significance of the features in(c) to the plant from which specimen M was
obtained? (1mks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
e) Draw and label the external features of a flower from specimen M (13mks)

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Practical 19 You are provided with specimens P, Q, R, S and T.

Examine the specimens using a hand lens or low power magnification of a microscope and answer the
following questions.
a) Give three structure differences and similarities between specimen S and T. (06marks)
Differences
Specimen-S specimen-T

i) SIMILARITIES
1………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………….……………

2…………………………………………………………………….…………………..………….………..……………………………………

3……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………….…………………….…………
b) Describe three named parts observed in the head region of specimen T (03mks)

STRUCTURES DESCRIPTIONS
1

c) i) state four adaptive structural features for survival of specimen P in its habitat. (4mks)
1……………………………………………...……………………………………………….................………..…………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………

3…………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………….…………….………………

4…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Observe the last three segments at the end of the limbs of specimen T including the structures with
the segments. Draw from inner view, but don’t label. (07marks)

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d) Using only the structures responsible for locomotion in the specimens, construct a dichotomous key
to identify the specimens in the order P, Q, R, S and ending with T
NB. (NO MARKS WILL BE AWARDE IF THE ORDER IS CHANGED) (06MKS)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Practical 20
You are provided with specimens T, U, V, and W which are the same plant organs. Using a hand lens;
examine the specimens in detail and answer the following questions.
a) Describe:-
i) Arrangement of florets in specimen U. (021/2 marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………….………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
ii) The structure of one florets from specimen U. (06 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………

………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………

…………………..………………………………………..………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
b) Suggest two advantages and one disadvantage to the specimen of the arrangement of florets as
described in a) i) above. (03 marks)
i) Advantages :-

1……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..……………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

2………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..……………………..………………………………………………………..……………………………………….……
ii) Disadvantages

……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..………………………..………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
c) Position your left hand vertically and gently rub the stigma and anthers of specimen V on the
back of your hand.

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i) Record your observations. (01marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………….………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
ii) Suggest the significance of your observations in C i) above to the plant from which specimen V
was removed. (02marks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
iii) Using suitable symbols; describe the arrangement; position and structural complexity of floral
parts in specimen V. (05MARKS)

d) Give two differences and similarities in the structure of specimens T and W. (02marks)
I) differences

Specimen T Specimen W

II) Similarities;- (02marks)

1……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………

……………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

2………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………..……………………..………………………………………………………..……………………………………….……

SUCCESS
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