UNIT 1

▪Introduction
▪Cell theory
▪Whitaker’s kingdom classification
▪Cell organelles, and their functions
▪Homeostasis
▪Replication and cell Division
▪Tissue differentiation
▪Stem cells and their applications
▪Genetic algorithms
Introduction

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 Concept of evolution

• The process by which different kinds of living organism

are believed to have developed from earlier forms during
the history of the earth.
• Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations.
• Jean Baptistae Lamarck (1801)-spontaneous generation of
species according to needs and functionalities of the
mutation
• Charles darwin (1859)- Based on survival of the fittest
mutations
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Cell theory

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 Living Organism

• A living organism may be defined as a complex unit

of physicochemical materials that is capable of
self-regulation, metabolism, and reproduction.

• Furthermore, a living organism demonstrates the

ability to interact with its environment, grow, move,
and adapt.

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What Are the main characteristics of organisms?

▪ Made of cells
▪ Require energy (food)
▪ Reproduce (species)
▪ Maintain homeostasis
▪ Organized
▪ Respond to environment
▪ Grow and develop
▪ Exchange materials with
surroundings (water,
wastes, gases)

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 Cell - Basic unit of life

a. Smallest living form

b. Inside the cell some structure transport
c. Metabolize
d. Respire
e. Reproduce (Meiosis)
f. Multiply (Mitosis)
g. Energy producing
h. Keep information
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 Prokaryotes

• Nucleoid region (center)

contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no
membrane) in their
cytoplasm to make
proteins

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 Eukaryotes

• Cells that have a

nucleus and
membrane-bound
organelles
• Includes protists,
fungi, plants, and
animals
• More complex type of
cells

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 CELL THEORY

• Suggested by German scientists Theodor Schwann

and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in 1838
• Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, and Theodor
Schwann, a British Zoologist formulated the cell
theory
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an
organism (basic unit of life)
• Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells
(cell division)
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Whittaker’s five kingdom of Classification

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 Five Kingdoms and their chief characteristics

• Unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and many

of the specialized cell parts, called organelles. Such
organisms are said to be prokaryotic (pro =‘‘before’’;
karyotic =‘‘kernel,’’ ‘‘nucleus’’) and consist of
bacteria.

• All of the other kingdoms consist of eukaryotic (eu =

‘‘true’’) organisms, which have cells that contain a
nucleus and a fuller repertory of organelles.

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Five Kingdoms and their chief characteristics

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Cell Structure and Function

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 Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound
Plant Cell

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 Cell or Plasma Membrane

• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins

• Surrounds outside of all cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
Proteins chains

Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
Lipid bilayer
(cytoplasm) channel
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 Cytoplasm of a Cell
cytoplasm

• Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
• Provides a medium for
chemical reactions to take
place
• Contains organelles to
carry out specific jobs
• Found in all cells

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 The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell
• Contains the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope (membrane)
with pores
• Usually the largest organelle
• Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes that
carry genes
• Genes control cell
characteristics 19
 Nucleolus

• Inside nucleus
• Cell may have 1 to 3
nucleoli
• Disappears when cell
divides
• Makes ribosomes that
make proteins

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 Cytoskeleton
• Helps cell maintain cell shape
• Also help move organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are threadlike & made of ACTIN
• Microtubules are tube-like and made of TUBULIN
Cytoskeleton

Microtubules

Microfilaments 21
 Centrioles
• Found only in animal
cells
• Paired structures near
nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell
division forming mitotic
spindle
• Help to pull
chromosome pairs
apart to opposite ends of
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the cell
 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle
cells have more mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of cellular respiration
(burning glucose)

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 Mitochondria
• Surrounded by a double
membrane
• Has its own DNA
– Mitochondria come from
cytoplasm in the egg cell during
fertilization
– Therefore you inherit your
mitochondria from your mother!

• Folded inner membrane called

cristae (increases surface area for
more chemical reactions)
• Interior called matrix 24
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in synthesis of cell products & transport

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Two kinds of ER ---Rough & Smooth
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
• Has ribosomes on its surface
• Makes membrane proteins and
proteins for export out of cell
• Proteins are made by ribosomes
on ER surface
• They are then threaded into
the interior of the Rough ER
to be modified and transported

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 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth ER lacks ribosomes on
its surface
• Is attached to the ends of rough
ER
• Makes cell products that are
used inside the cell
• Makes membrane lipids
(steroids)
• Regulates calcium (muscle
Includes nuclear membrane
cells) connected to ER connected
to cell membrane (transport)
• Destroys toxic substances
(Liver) 27
 Ribosomes
• Made of proteins and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins
• Process called protein synthesis
• Can be attached to Rough ER OR Be free
(unattached) in the cytoplasm

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 Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened
sacs
• Have a shipping side
(trans face) and CIS
receiving side (cis
face)
• Receive proteins
made by ER
• Transport vesicles
with modified proteins TRANS
pinch off the ends Transport
vesicle
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 Golgi Bodies
▪Look like a stack of pancakes
▪Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for storage
or transport out of the cell.

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 Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell
parts for cells
• Programmed for cell death (Autolysis)
• Lyse (break open) & release enzymes to break
down & recycle cell parts)

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 Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in food by

phagocytosis

• Lysosomes digest the

food & get rid of
wastes

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 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal
cells
• Plant cells have a large
Central Vacuole
• No vacuoles in bacterial cells
• In plants, they store Cell Sap
• Includes storage of sugars,
proteins, minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes
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 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers (organisms containing
chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to make own food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Bonds of
Sugars

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Surrounded by double membrane
Outer membrane smooth
Inner membrane modified into sacs called
thylakoids
Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & interconnected
Stroma – gel like material surrounding thylakoids

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 Chloroplasts

• Contains its own DNA

• Contains enzymes & pigments for Photosynthesis
• Never in animal or bacterial cells
• Photosynthesis – food making process

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Homeostasis

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 Homeostasis
Definition : Maintenance of the relative stability of the physical and chemical
aspects of the internal environment within a range compatible with cellular
function.

Maintaining a constant internal environment with all that the cells need to
survive (O2, glucose, minerals, ions, and waste removal) is necessary for
individual cells. The processes by which the body regulates its internal
environment are referred to as homeostasis.

Components : 1) sensor
2) afferent pathway
3) integration center or comparator
4) efferent pathway
5) effector organ(s)

• Physiological control systems are the nervous system, endocrine system, and
immune system through feedback mechanisms. 38
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 Extrinsic homeostatic systems
Nervous System
• The nervous system maintains homeostasis by
controlling and regulating the other parts of the
body.
– A deviation from a normal set point acts as a

stimulus to a receptor, which sends nerve

impulses to a regulating center in the brain. The
brain directs an effector to act in such a way that
an adaptive response takes place.
• The nervous system has two major portions: the
central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.
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Classification of Nervous System

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• Regulating centers are located in the central nervous
system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
– The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain

particularly concerned with homeostasis; it

influences the action of the medulla oblongata, a
lower part of the brain, the autonomic nervous
system, and the pituitary gland.
• The peripheral nervous system consists of the spinal
nerves. The autonomic nervous system is a part of
peripheral nervous system and contains motor
neurons that control internal organs. It has two
divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems.
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 Endocrine System
• The endocrine system consists of glands which
secrete special compounds called hormones into
the bloodstream.
• Each hormone has an effect on one or more target
tissues. In this way the endocrine system regulates
the metabolism and development of most body cells
and body systems.
• For e.g. the endocrine system has sex hormones that
can activate sebaceous glands, development of
mammary glands, alter dermal blood flow, and
release lipids from adipocytes etc. besides
governing reproduction.
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Endocrine System

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• In the muscular system, hormones adjust muscle
metabolism, energy production, and growth.
• In the nervous system, hormones affect neural
metabolism, regulate fluid/electrolyte balance and
help with reproductive hormones that influence
CNS (central nervous system), development and
behaviors.
• In the cardiovascular system, hormones regulate
heart rate and blood pressure.
• Hormones also have anti-inflammatory effects and
control the lymphatic system.

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• Negative feedback : a control system that causes
the value of a physiological measurement to change
in the direction opposite to the initial deviation
from set point.

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• Positive feedback : a control system that causes the
value of a physiological measurement to change in
the same direction as the initial deviation from set
point.

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Cell growth, reproduction, and differentiation

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 The Cell Cycle

• Mitosis and meiosis are single steps in cell cycle

• G1, S, G2, and M phases
– Cells not in process of dividing are in G0
phase
– Chromosomes are duplicated in preparation
for the next round of division during
interphase

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 Control of the Cell Cycle
• The stimuli for entering the cell cycle is in the form of
growth factors and cytokines that are capable of
inducing mitotic divisions
• The cell cycle is highly regulated
– Proteins whose concentrations rise & fall in a
controlled manner
• Cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases (cdk)

• p53 and pRb

• Inhibitors of cdk

• Internal checkpoints & guardians monitor cell health

• Errors in this process can lead to uncontrollable growth
and cancer 52
 Control of the Cell Cycle

• Cell cycle control is

focused at 3 places:
• G1 checkpoint
• G2 checkpoint
• M checkpoint
– Before S phase
(DNA synthesis)
– At transition
between G2 and
M phase
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 DNA replication-Binary fission
Daughter cells are identical copies
Chromosome Plasma membrane

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

Neither mitosis nor meiosis occurs in prokaryotes 54

 DNA
Bacteria

Reproduction
cell wall
• Asexual, through binary fission

• No true sexual reproduction, since neither mitosis nor

meiosis exist in prokaryotes

• Horizontal transfer of genetic material

Transformation - Uptake of genetic material from the environment

Transduction - Transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes by viruses

Conjugation - Direct transfer of genetic material from one prokaryote to

another

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 Mitosis
Four phases –

a. Prophase: chromosomes condense, spindle apparatus forms,

nuclear envelope breaks down

b. Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator of cell

c. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate

d. Telophase: new nuclear envelopes form, chromosomes

unwind

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 pair of
homologous,
duplicated
chromosomes

sister
chromatids of
nuclear one duplicated
envelope homologue

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(a) Interphase in a seed cell: The (b) Late prophase: The (c) Metaphase: The chromosomes
chromosomes (blue) are in the chromosomes (blue) have have moved to the equator of the
thin, extended state and appear condensed and attached to cell.
as a mass in the center of the the spindle microtubules (red).
cell. The spindle microtubules
(red) extend outward from the
nucleus to all parts of the cell.

(d) Anaphase: Sister (e) Telophase: The (f) Resumption of interphase: The
chromatids chromosomes have gathered chromosomes are relaxing again
have separated, and one set into two clusters, one at the into their extended state. The spindle
has moved toward each pole. site of each future nucleus. microtubules are disappearing,
and the microtubules of the two
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daughter cells are rearranging into
the interphase pattern.
Each new nucleus is genetically identical to the parent nucleus

Daughter Cells
Each cell has the same
Parent Cell genetic makeup as the
Chromosomes parent cell
have been
replicated

Mitosis

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 Mitosis or Somatic Cell Division

• A cell divides producing two genetically identical

daughter cells.
• New cells are produced for growth or repair of
aging or damaged tissues.
• For asexual reproduction

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Interphase
• The stage between two successive cell divisions.
• Prior to mitosis, thin strands of DNA in a cell
thicken into chromosomes, which then duplicate

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Early Prophase
• The centrioles divide and with the asters, move apart
• The nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate

Late Prophase
• The centrioles and asters are pushed to the opposite
poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers extend between the poles
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus have almost
disappeared

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Metaphase
• Nuclear membrane disappears completely
• The double chromosomes, their centromeres
attached to the spindle fibers, align at the metaphase
plate, midline of the cell.

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Early Anaphase
• The centromeres split half moving to one pole and
half to the other pole
Late Anaphase
• The chromosomes have almost reached to their
respective poles.
• The cell membrane begins to contract at the midline.

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Telophase
• The cell membrane completes contraction, closing
over to split the cell in two.
• Nuclear membrane form around the chromatin
masses within each new daughter cell.

Mitosis completed
There are now two cells, with structures and
chromosomes identical to each other and the original
cell
 Meiosis

Characteristics of meiosis -
▪ Occurs in sex cells (germ cells) and produces
gametes.
▪ A reduction division resulting in haploid cells.
▪ Involves two sequential divisions resulting in four
cells.
▪ Produces cells that are genetically different because
of genetic recombination (crossing-over).

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Meiosis produces gametes for sexual reproduction
• Multiplies number of cells but also reduces chromosome
number in each daughter cell to exactly half the number
present before meiosis

• Daughter cells get 1 member of each homologous pair, i.e. 1

allele for each gene

• Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells

• Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells

• All body cells in humans are diploid, except gametes

• Cells with 1 member of each homologous pair are haploid 69

 Meiosis

Daughter Cells (1n) Gamete Cells (1n)

each chromosome has 2
chromatids
Parent Cell
(2n)

1st division 2nd division

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 Cell Differentiation
• The process of altering the pattern of gene expression and thus
becoming a cell of a particular type is called cell
differentiation.
• Presence of chemicals (or other influences) starts altering the
decisions as to which genes will be turned on or off.
• The zygote is a totipotent cell - its daughter cells can become
any cell type. As the development proceeds, some of the cells
become pluripotent - they can become many, but not all cell
types.
• Later on, the specificity narrows down further and a particular
stem cell can turn into only a very limited number of cell
types, e.g., a few types of blood cells, but not bone or brain
cells or anything else. That is why embryonic stem cell
research is much more promising than the adult stem cell
research. 74
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Differentiation of different tissues and organs

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Differentiation of different tissues and organs

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Stem cells and their applications

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Genetic Algorithm

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 Genetic Algorithms

Genetic algorithms (GA) in programming, simulate

the process of natural selection which means those
species who can adapt to changes in their environment
are able to survive and reproduce and go to next
generation. In simple words, they simulate “survival of
the fittest” among individual of consecutive generation
for solving a problem. Genetic algorithms are based on
an analogy with genetic structure and behavior of
chromosomes of the population.

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 Following is the foundation of GAs based on this
analogy –
1. Individual in population compete for resources and
mate
2. Those individuals who are successful (fittest) then
mate to create more offspring than others
3. Genes from “fittest” parent propagate throughout the
generation, that is sometimes parents create offspring
which is better than either parent.
4. Thus each successive generation is more suited for
their environment.

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 Components of a search space in Genetic algorithm

• Gene represents a single solution to a problem

• chromosome (individual) is composed of several

genes or multiple similar solutions.

• population of individuals are maintained within search

space - all solutions to the problem

The whole algorithm can be summarized as –
‾ Randomly initialize n populations

‾ Determine fitness of population

‾ Until convergence repeat:

a) Select parents from population

b) Crossover and generate new population
c) Perform mutation on new population
d) Calculate fitness for new population 92
 The Fitness score
• The GAs maintains the population of n individuals
(chromosome/solutions) along with their fitness scores.

• The individuals having better fitness scores are given more

chance to reproduce than others.

• The individuals with better fitness scores are selected who

mate and produce better offspring by combining
chromosomes of parents.

• Always the new generation of solutions will have better

fitness than the parent population.
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 Operators for GA
• The Algorithm uses
certain biological
concepts as operators to
find better solutions
• Cross Over
Crossover
• Mutation
• Selection ( best fitness
score in previous
generation)

Mutation
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 Uses of GA
• Genetic Algorithms are primarily used in
optimization problems of various kinds, but they are
frequently used in other application areas.

• Optimization − Genetic Algorithms are most

commonly used in optimization problems wherein we
have to maximize or minimize a given objective
function value under a given set of constraints.

• DNA Analysis − GAs have been used to determine

the structure of DNA using spectrometric data about
the sample.
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• Neural Networks − GAs are also used to train
neural networks, particularly recurrent neural
networks.
• Parallelization − GAs also have very good parallel
capabilities, and prove to be very effective means in
solving certain problems, and also provide a good
area for research.

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 Advantages of GA

• Does not require any derivative information (which

may not be available for many real-world problems).

• Is faster and more efficient as compared to the

traditional methods.

• Provides a list of “good” solutions and not just a

single solution.

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 Disadvantages of GA

• GAs are not suited for all problems, especially

problems which are simple and for which derivative
information is available.

• Fitness value is calculated repeatedly which might be

computationally expensive.

• Being stochastic, there are no guarantees on the

optimality or the quality of the solution.

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Thank you

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