I.

Definition of Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and
control of electrons (electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in
vacuums, gasses, and semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons. This
control of electrons is accomplished by devices (electronic components) that resist,
carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron. (Das, n.d.)
Electronics, the field of physics concerned with the emission and effects of
electrons, as well as the use of electronic devices include devices that use electricity
and electrical components to execute a function, such as stereos, televisions,
computers, and calculators. Unless you live off the grid in a distant location, winding
a watch on your wrist and looking at freshly caught fish over a campfire, your life is
full of gadgets. Electronic devices include kitchen appliances, laptops, and
televisions. This term can also refer to the science of building circuits with electrical
components or the study of how electrons behave under different conditions.
(Vocabulary.com, n.d.)
As the name suggests, “Electronics” is directly related to the electrons, which
means how an electron behaves when it is subjected to externally applied electric
and magnetic fields. The word electronics is derived from electron mechanics.
So basically, electronics is a branch of engineering that deals with the flow of current
through any form of matter, semiconductors, gasses etc. It also deals with the
theoretical study of devices and their applications in real life. Electronics is an
enormous field and is particularly classified as:Physical Electronics and Electronics
Engineering To analyze the motion of electrons in mediums like gas, vacuum, or
semiconductors, physical electronics are used. Whereas electronics engineering deals
with the designing, fabrication, and application of electronic devices. (BYJU'S, n.d.)

II. History of Electronics

The history of electronics through 1745 until 2021 is provided, together with
information on the greatest engineers, scientists, physicists, and inventors, as well as
the significance of their contributions to the field and discoveries in the field of
electronics.
Ewald Georg von Kleist and Pieter van Musschenbroek discovered the Layden
Jar in 1745. It was the first electrical capacitor– a storage mechanism for an electrical
charge. The first ones were a glass jar filled with water-two wires suspended in the
water. Muschenbrock got such a shock out of the first jar he experimented with that
he nearly died. Later, the water was replaced with metal foils wrapped so that there
was insulation between the layers of foil-the two wires are attached to the ends of
the sheets of foil. (Das, 2022)

Figure 2.1
Musschenbroek working with Leyden jar

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 In 1706 until 1790, Benjamin Flew kites to demonstrate that lightning is a form
of Static Electricity (ESD). He would run a wire to the kite and produce sparks at the
ground, or charge a Leyden jar. This led Franklin to invent the lightning rod. Franklin
also made several electrostatic generators with rotating glass balls to experiment
with. These experiments led him to formulate the single fluid (imponderable fluid)
theory of electricity. Previous theories had held there were two electrical fluids and
two magnetic fluids. Franklin theorized just one imponderable electrical fluid (a fluid
under conservation) in the universe. The difference in electrical charges was
explained by an excess (+) or defect (–) of the single electrical fluid. This is where the
positive and negative symbols come from in Electric Circuit. (Das, 2022)
In 1736 until 1806, Charles Augustus Coulomb Invented the torsion balance in
1785. The torsion balance is a simple device – a horizontal cross-bar is mounted on a
stretched wire. A ball is then mounted on each end of the cross bar. Given a positive
or negative charge, those balls will then attract or repel other objects that carry
charges. The balls responding to these charges will try to twist the wire holding the
cross bar. The wire resists twisting, and how much twisting occurs tells you how much
force the attraction or repulsion exerted. Coulomb showed electrical attraction and
repulsion follow an inverse square law. The unit of charge (Coulomb) is named after
him. (Das, 2022)
Alessandro Volta Announced the results of his experiments investigating
Galvani’s claims about the source of electricity in the frog leg experiment. He
undertook to prove that he could produce electricity without the frog. He took the
same bimetallic arcs (many of them) and dipped them in glasses of brine. This was
Volta’s Couronne des Tasses- his first battery. The voltaic pile was an improved
configuration for a battery. With it he showed that the bimetallic arcs were the
source of electricity. The unit of voltage is named after him. (Das, 2022)
Andre Marie Ampere gave a formalized understanding of the relationships
between electricity and magnetism using algebra. The unit for current (ampere) is
named after him. (Das, 2022)
Hans Christian Oersted(1777 to 1851), in the year 1820 in Denmark Oersted
demonstrated a relationship between electricity and magnetism by showing that an
electrical wire carrying current will deflect a magnetic needle. The CGS unit for
magnetic field strength (Oersted) is named after him. (Das, 2022)
George Simon Ohm wanted to measure the motive force of electrical currents.
He found that some conductors worked better than others and quantified the
differences.He waited quite some time to announce “Ohm’s Law” because his theory
was not accepted by his peers. The unit for resistance (Ohms) is named after him.
(Das, 2022)
Michael Faraday made a great contribution to the History of Electronics. In the
1820s Faraday postulated that an electrical current moving through a wire creates
“fields of force” surrounding the wire. He believed that these “fields of force” when
established and collapsed could move a magnet. This led to a number of experiments
with electricity as a motive (moving) force. In 1821, Faraday built the first electric
motor – a device for transforming an electrical current into rotary motion. In 1831,
Faraday made the first transformer – a device for inducing an electrical current in a
wire not connected to an electrical source, also known as Faraday’s Ring. It was
powered by a voltaic pile and used a manually operated key to interrupt the current.
The unit of capacitance (farad) is named after him. (Das, 2022)
Karl Friedrich Gauss(1777 to 1855) Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804 to 1891), Gauss
is known as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. At a very early age he
overturned the theories and methods of 18th-century mathematics. Beginning in 1830,

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Gauss worked closely with Weber. They organized a worldwide system of stations for
systematic observations of terrestrial magnetism. The most important result of their
work in electromagnetism was the development, by others, of telegraphy. Weber, a
German physicist, also established a system of absolute electrical units. His work on
the ratio between the electrodynamics and electrostatic units was crucial to
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light. The CGS unit of magnetic field density is
named after Gauss.The MKS unit of flux is named after Weber. (Das, 2022)
Joseph Henry (1797-1878) He was a professor in a small school in Albany, New
York. He worked to improve electromagnets and was the first to superimpose coils of
wire wrapped on an iron core. It is said that he insulated the wire for one of his
magnets using a silk dress belonging to his wife.In 1830 he observed electromagnetic
induction, a year before Faraday. He was roundly criticized for not publishing his
discovery, losing the distinction for American science. Henry did obtain priority for
the discovery of self induction, however. He received an appointment at New Jersey
College (later Princeton University) and in 1846 became the first director of the
Smithsonian Institution. The unit of induction [henry (H)] is named after him. (Das,
2022)
Heinrich F.E. Lenz (1804 - 1865), he was born in the old university city of Tartu,
Estonia (then in Russia), He was a professor at the University of St. Petersburg. He carried
out many experiments following the lead of Faraday. He is memorialized by the law which
bears his name – the electrodynamics action of an induced current equally opposes the
mechanical inducing action- which was later recognized to be an expression of the
conservation of energy. (Das, 2022)

Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791- 1872), Morse brought a practical system of
telegraphy to the forefront using electromagnets, and invented the code named after
him in 1844. Although in 1837 the development of an electric telegraph system
making use of a deflecting magnetic needle had already been developed by Sir W. F.
Cooke and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who installed the first railway telegraph system in
England, Morse overcame both electrical design flaws and information flow
restrictions to enable the telegraph to become a viable system of communication.
(Das, 2022)
Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824 - 1887), he was a German physicist. He announced
the laws which allow calculation of the current, voltage, and resistance of electrical
networks in 1845 when he was only 21. In further studies he demonstrated that
current flows through a conductor at the speed of light. (Das, 2022)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879), He wrote a mathematical treatise
formalizing the theory of fields in 1856: On Faraday’s Lines of Force. Most researchers
at the time did not believe in Faraday’s lines of force, but James Clerk Maxwell did
Between 1864 and 1873 Maxwell showed that 20 simple mathematical equations could
express the behavior of electric and magnetic fields and their interrelated nature. In
the year 1873 Maxwell published Electricity and Magnetism, demonstrating four
partial differential equations that completely described electrical phenomena.
Maxwell also calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is
approximately that of the speed of light. He proposed that the phenomenon of light is
therefore an electromagnetic phenomenon. Because charges can oscillate with any
frequency, Maxwell concluded that visible light forms only a small part of the entire
spectrum of possible electromagnetic radiation. (Das, 2022)

Hermann Lud-wig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821-1894), he was an all round

universal scientist and researcher. He was one of the 19th century's greatest
scientists. In 1870, after analyzing all the prevalent theories of electrodynamics, he
lent his support to Maxwell’s theory which was little known on the European
continent. (Das, 2022)

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 Sir William Crookes investigated electrical discharges through highly evacuated
“Crookes tubes” in the year 1878. These studies laid the foundation for J. J.
Thomson’s research in the late 1890s concerning discharge-tube phenomena and the
electron. He also discovered the element Thallium and made the radiometer. (Das,
2022)

Joseph Wilson Swan demonstrated his electric lamp in Britain in February 1879.
The filament used carbon and had a partial vacuum and preceded Edison’s
demonstration by six months. (Das, 2022)

Thomas Alva Edison is one of the greatest scientists and inventors in the history
of electronics. In 1878 , Edison began work on an electric lamp and sought a material
that could be electrically heated to incandescence in a vacuum. At first he used
platinum wire in glass bulbs at 10 volts. He connected these bulbs in series to utilize a
higher supply voltage; however, he realized that independent lamp control would be
necessary for home and office use. He then developed a three-wire system with a
supply of 220 volts DC. Each lamp operated at 110 volts, and the higher voltage
required a resistance vastly greater than that of platinum. Edison conducted an
extensive search for a filament material to replace platinum until, on Oct. 21, 1879,
he demonstrated a lamp containing a carbonized cotton thread that glowed for 40
hours. Edison installed the first large central power station on Pearl Street in New
York City in 1882; its steam-driven generators of 900 horsepower provided enough
power for 7,200 lamps. He consistently fought the use of alternating current AC, and
continued to market direct current DC systems. This eventually destroyed this arm of
his marketing empire due to inadequate technology. During his experiments on the
incandescent bulb, Edison noted a flow of electricity from a hot filament across a
vacuum to a metal wire. This effect, known as thermionic emission, or the Edison
effect, was the foundation of the work later refined by Lee De Forest to create the
Audion. (Das, 2022)

Oliver Heaviside(1850-1925) worked with Maxwell’s equations to reduce the

fatigue incurred in solving them. In the process, he created a form of vector analysis
called “Operational Calculus” that replaced the differential d/dt with the algebraic
variable p, thus transforming differential equations to algebraic equations (Laplace
Transforms). This increased the speed of solution considerably. He also proposed the
ionized air layer named after him (the Heavisids layer), that inductance can be added
to transmission lines to increase transmission distance, and that charges will increase
in mass when accelerated. (Das, 2022)

Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857- 1894) was the first person to demonstrate the
existence of radio waves. His inspiration came from Helmholtz and Maxwell. Hertz
demonstrated in 1887 that the velocity of radio waves (also called Hertzian waves)
was equal to that of light. The unit of frequency (Hertz) is named after him. (Das,
2022)

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) has made a great contribution to the history of

electronics. He devised the polyphase alternating-current systems that form the
modern electrical power industry. In 1884, Tesla emigrated to the United States. He
worked briefly for Thomas Edison, who as the advocate of direct current became
Tesla’s unsuccessful rival in electric power development. In 1888, Tesla showed how a
magnetic field could be made to rotate if two coils at right angles were supplied with
alternating currents 90 degrees out of phase with each other at 60 hertz. George
Westinghouse bought rights to the patents on this motor and made it the basis for the
Westinghouse power system at Niagara Falls. Tesla’s other inventions included the
Tesla coil, a kind of transformer, and he did research on high-voltage electricity and
wireless communication. In 1905, he demonstrated a wireless remote control boat,
while at the same time Marconi was still transmitting Morse code. Despite his many

4
patents and genius, he died poor. Congress declared Tesla the “father of radio“, (not
wireless as Marconi was), because Marconi’s four tuned circuit radio used Tesla’s 1897
radio patent describing the four tuned stages, two on input and two on output. The
unit of magnetic field density (Tesla) is named after him. (Das, 2022)

Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923) discovered the mathematics of

hysteresis loss, thus enabling engineers of the time to reduce magnetic loss in
transformers. He also applied the mathematics of complex numbers to AC analysis and
thus put engineering design of electrical systems on a scientific basis instead of a
black art. Along with Nikola Tesla, he is responsible for wresting the generation of
power away from Edison’s inefficient DC system to the more elegant AC system. (Das,
2022)

Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) Known as the “father of wireless“, He was an

Italian national who expanded on the experiments that Hertz did, and believed that
telegraphic messages could be transmitted without wires. In 1897, Marconi formed his
wireless telegraph company, and in December 1901 he did the first transAtlantic radio
transmission in Morse code. When Marconi died all the radio transmitters in the world
were silent for two minutes. (Das, 2022)

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845- 1923), Discovered X rays, for which he

received the first Nobel Prize for physics in 1901. He observed that barium
platinocyanide crystals across the room fluoresce whenever he turned on a Crooke’s,
or cathode-ray discharge tube, even when the tube was shielded by thin metal sheets.
Roentgen correctly hypothesized that a previously unknown form of radiation of very
short wavelength was involved, and that these X rays (a term he coined) caused the
crystals to glow. He later demonstrated the metallurgical and medical use of X rays
which later brought a revolution in medical science.The unit of radiation exposure
(rad) is named after him. (Das, 2022)

Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940), He is universally recognized as the

British scientist who discovered and identified the electron in the year 1897. Thomson
demonstrated that cathode rays were actually units of electrical current made up of
negatively charged particles of subatomic size. He believed them to be an integral
part of all matter and theorized the “plum pudding” model of atomic structure in
which a quantity of negatively charged electrons was embedded in a sphere of
positive electricity, the two charges neutralizing each other. (Das, 2022)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) has made a great name in the history of

electronics. In the year 1905, Einstein elaborated on the experimental results of Max
Planck who noticed that electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating
objects in quantities that were discrete. The energy of these emitted quantities – the
so-called “light-quanta” was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation
which was completely contrary to classical electromagnetic theory, based on
Maxwell’s equations and the laws of thermodynamics. Einstein used Planck’s quantum
hypothesis to describe visible electromagnetic radiation, or light. According to
Einstein’s viewpoint, light could be imagined to consist of discrete bundles of
radiation. He used this interpretation to explain the photoelectric effect, by which
certain metals emit electrons when illuminated by light with a given frequency.
Einstein’s theory, and his subsequent elaboration of it, formed the basis for much of
Quantum Mechanics. (Das, 2022)

Sir John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945), He made the first diode tube, the
Fleming valve in the year 1905. The device had three leads, two for the
heater/cathode and the other for the plate. (Das, 2022)

Lee De Forest (1873-1961), He added a grid electrode to Fleming’s valve and

created the triode tube, later improved and called the Audion. This increased the

5
distance that radio could be received by two orders of magnitude. He was a prolific
inventor, and was granted more than 300 patents in the fields of wireless telegraphy,
radio, wire telephone, sound-on-film, picture transmission, and television. (Das, 2022)

Jack St. Clair Kilby (1923-2005), he developed the integrated circuit while at
Texas instruments. While conducting research into miniaturization he built the first
true integrated circuit, a phase-shift oscillator with individually wired parts. Kilby
received a patent in 1959. (Das, 2022)

Robert Norton Noyce Developed the integrated circuit with a more practical
approach to scaling the size of the circuit. He became a founder of Fairchild
Semiconductor Company in 1957. In 1959, he and a co-worker developed the design of
a semiconducting chip; the same idea occurred independently that same year to Jack
Kilby of Texas Instruments. Noyce and Kilby were both granted patents. In 1968 he
formed Intel with Gordon Moore, and in 1971 Intel designer Ted Hoff developed the
first microprocessor, the 4004. (Das, 2022)

Seymour Cray, Also known as “The Father of the Supercomputer“, along with
George Amdahl, defined the supercomputer industry in 1976. (Das, 2022)

Ray Prasad is the author of the textbook Surface Mount Technology: Principles
and Practice. He is an inductee to the IPC Hall of Fame, the highest honor in
Electronics Industry for his contribution to the electronics industry. He is also the
recipient of the IPC President’s Award, SMTA Member of Distinction Award, Intel
Achievement Award, and Dieter W. Bergman IPC Fellowship Medal. As the lead
engineer, Mr. Prasad introduced SMT into airplanes and defense systems at Boeing, and
as SMT program manager, he managed the global implementation of SMT at Intel
Corporation. (Das, 2022)

2.1 The Vacuum Tube Era

Theoretical and experimental studies of electricity during the 18th and 19th
centuries led to the development of the first electrical machines and the beginning of
the widespread use of electricity. The history of electronics began to evolve
separately from that of electricity late in the 19th century with the identification of
the electron by the English physicist Sir Joseph John Thomson and the measurement
of its electric charge by the American physicist Robert A. Millikan in 1909.

Thomas Edison observed a bluish glow in early light bulbs and discovered that a
current would flow from one electrode to another if the second electrode was
positively charged. This discovery led to the development of electron tubes, such as
the improved X-ray tube by William D. Coolidge and Fleming's thermionic valve for
radio receivers. The detection of radio signals required rectifying the signal, which
was achieved through a device that conducts only when the signal has one polarity.
Crystal rectifiers, which worked, encouraged further study of semiconducting
materials, ultimately leading to the invention of the transistor. (Scace, 2024)

2.2 The Semiconductor Revolution Invention of the Transistor

The invention of the transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,

and William B. Shockley of the Bell research staff led to the development of
integrated circuits and transistors made of semiconductors. These devices have
electrical properties that can be varied by adding small amounts of other elements.
Early transistors were made using germanium due to its sensitive electrical
properties. However, research on purifying silicon in the late 1950s led to the
production of silicon-based devices from about 1960. Silicon is more abundant and
less expensive than germanium, and it retains its semiconducting properties at higher

6
temperatures. Silicon also forms an oxide film with excellent electrical insulating
properties when heated to high temperatures. (Scace, 2024)

2.3 Integrated Circuits

In 1960, vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors due to their affordability,

reliability, and smaller size. This led to the invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by
Jack Kilby and Jean Hoerni and Robert Noyce in 1959. ICs initially contained 10
components on a silicon chip, but by 1970, they could hold up to 1,000. The first
microprocessor was introduced in 1971, containing all the arithmetic, logic, and
control circuitry needed for a computer's central processing unit (CPU). The demand
for microprocessors led to high-volume production and cost reduction, promoting
their use in various applications. Continued advances in IC technology led to very
large-scale integration (VLSI), increasing the circuit density of microprocessors. By the
mid-1980s, inexpensive microprocessors stimulated computerization of various
consumer products, including programmable microwave ovens, thermostats, television
sets, videocassette recorders, telephones, and security systems. Microelectronics also
became prevalent in business, industry, and government sectors. By mid-1986,
memory ICs with a capacity of 262,144 bits were available, and Gordon E. Moore's law,
which states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18-24
months, is widely used in forecasting future IC manufacturing requirements. (Scace,
2024)

2.4 Compound Semiconductor Materials

Silicon carbide is a compound semiconductor composed of two elements from

column IV of the periodic table, ideal for high-temperature applications. III-V
compounds, formed by combining elements from column III and column V, are used to
create efficient or high-frequency semiconductor devices. These compounds can be
mixed together, affecting their electrical and optical properties. They have the same
crystal structure, allowing for compositional changes within one body. These
properties are used in semiconductor lasers, producing light of any wavelength, used
in compact disc players and optical fiber communication. (Scace, 2024)

2.5 Digital Electronics

Computers, like light switches and vacuum tubes, operate in binary mode,
understanding only 0 and 1. Digital integrated circuits have made it easier to design
electronic systems using digital language for control and communication. Digital
methods allow for verification of signal accuracy and correction of errors. However,
noise can corrupt signals, making digital systems more complex and susceptible to
malfunction. To ensure immunity from noise, many electronic systems must operate
digitally. While it is possible to correct for arbitrary errors, the amount of extra
information required reduces the system's capacity to handle desired information. The
explosion of electronic systems has led to a rise in electrical noise levels, making it
crucial to design systems to limit noise generation and protect them from external
noise sources. (Scace, 2024)

III. Application of Electronics

Electronic devices or machines are among the best ways to improve our
efficiency and save time because they tend to play a significant role in everyone’s
lives. They also have a wide range of applications that have made our lives more
efficient.

Medical; in the field of medicine, electronic gadgets are used to aid in the
diagnosis and determination of medical issues. They are also used in research that
leads to the development of treatments and cures for diseases and even genetic

7
defects. MRI, CAT, and earlier X-ray machines, as well as tests for diabetes,
cholesterol, and other blood components, all rely on electronics to do their tasks fast
and precisely. Implanted pacemakers and other medical devices are becoming
practically commonplace. (Pradesh, 2023)

Entertainment and Communication; more people now consider electronics to

be a need than a pleasure. The availability of affordable and quick communication
methods has facilitated the nation’s development. If you think back a few decades,
you’ll see that telephone and telegraphy were the only major uses of electronics back
then. Yes, we only bring out technological devices when we need to talk on the phone
or listen to the radio. But times have changed, and we can now quickly interact with
others in a matter of seconds. (Pradesh, 2023)

Defense; the electrical circuit is used by the military and police for defence
purposes. In the world of electronics, they employ RADAR technology, also known as
radio detection and ranging. We can quickly identify and pinpoint the precise location
of hostile aircraft with the use of RADAR. An electronic control system can link the
RADAR and anti-craft weapons together to form a single unit. Electronic equipment is
therefore incredibly helpful for keeping opponents at bay because they support the
military in every manner. (Pradesh, 2023, #)

Industries; Electronic circuits are now employed in a variety of businesses,

from large to tiny. They are often employed in industries to regulate a material’s
depth, quality, weight, and moisture content. In particular, electronic amplifier
circuits are used to boost signals and thereby regulate the motion of electronic door
openers, power systems, and security systems. Electric-powered machinery is used in
these sectors for a variety of tasks, including heating and welding. The main industrial
use is for power transmitters. They can transfer thousands of megawatts of electricity
under the direction of tiny electronic components and networks. (Pradesh, 2023, #)

Consumer electronics; Consumer electronics refer to appliances designed for

regular use by common people. Devices like computers, scanners, calculators, FAX
machines, projectors, etc., all made use of it in the office environment. (Pradesh,
2023, #)

Robotics and artificial intelligence; Computer graphics and image processing

aren't the only places where electrical systems are put to use. Artificial intelligence
and robotics technologies employ them for inspection, navigation, and assembly as
well. Electronics engineering has allowed for the development of computer-based
technologies like virtual reality and facial gesture recognition. (Pradesh, 2023, #)

Automobiles; Anti-collision units, anti-lock brake systems, traction controls,

window regulators, and other electronic control units are only some of the newer
automotive technologies that rely heavily on electronics. (Pradesh, 2023, #)

IV. Common Electronic Components

4.1. Electronics - Basic Components

Electrons and Conductors are electronics’ basic components are electrons and
conductors. Electrons are subatomic negatively charged particles, while conductors
consist of materials that allow the electrons to flow freely. Electrons create an
electrical current when they flow through a conductor. The current can be used to
power electronic devices. (Market Business News, n.d.)

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 Figure 1.1
Electron and Conductors Diagram

Circuits; the circuit is the heart of an electronic device. Circuits consist of

resistors, capacitors, transistors, and conductors. Resistors limit the flow of electrons,
unlike conductors which allow them to flow freely. Transistors control the flow of
electrons while capacitors store electrical energy. (Market Business News, n.d.)

Figure 1.2.
Circuits
4.2 Basic Electronic Components
Resistors are the basis of all electronic components. A resistor is a passive
electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric current and is
measured in Ohms. The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship
specified by Ohm’s law V=IR. Where V stands for Voltage, I stands for Current and R is
a resistor constant of proportionality, whereas Voltage across a resistor is proportional
to the current. Resistors are either connected in series or parallel. Color bands around
the component body indicate the value and tolerance of the resistor. (Instructables,
n.d.)
Capacitor;The capacitor has two terminals. It’s a device that stores electric
charge and electric energy in an electric field. The capacitor’s unit is capacitance and
is expressed as the electric charge ratio on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. The capacitance value of a capacitor is measured in farads(F).
Capacitors, like resistors, can combine in parallel or series within a circuit. The
equation for capacitor design is: C = εA/d. Where C is Capacitance; ε is permittivity, a
term for how well dielectric material stores an electric field; and A is the parallel
plate area. (Instructables, n.d.)
Transistor; The transistor is a semiconductor device that is commonly used for
amplification or switching purposes of electronic signals and electrical power.

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Transistor consists of 3 terminals, namely emitter, collector, and base. Transistors in a
computer are packed inside a number of tiny microchips and are also placed singly in
some devices. Emitter – The Emitter stores the large section of the majority charge
carrier. Collector – The collector collects the large portion of the majority charge
carrier supplied by the emitter. Base – The middle segment of the transistor is known
as the base. The base manifests two circuits, One with an emitter for the input circuit
and a collector for the output circuit. (Instructables, n.d.)

Switches; One of the most basic electrical components are switches and also
the most widely used component in electrical engineering. A switch is used to connect
or disconnect the conducting path in an electrical circuit. The switch needs an
external force to make these changes in electrical signals. When you push down or
flick a switch, you allow the current to flow through to the rest of the circuit.

Types of switches: Toggle switches – Toggle switch is a type of switch that is

operated by moving a lever or handle back and forth to open or close an electrical
circuit. An Example of a toggle switch is the light system used in household wiring.
Push button switches – A push button switch is a two-position device that when
pressed activates to 0 state otherwise in its natural 1 state. Calculator, push-button
telephones are the example of pushbutton switches. Selector switches – Selector
switch also called rotary switch can be controlled by on or off of different currents
circuits by rotating the handle. It is used when two or more position options are
available. (Instructables, n.d.)

Diodes; are the two-terminal electronic component which allows the flow of
current in one direction only and blocks the current that flows in the opposite
direction. Two terminals of the diode are known as Anode and Cathode. The Diode
having 0 resistance in one direction and infinite resistance in the reverse direction is
to be an ideal diode.Most commonly used diodes types: Zener Diode: The Zener Diode
allows current in a backward direction when the applied voltage reaches the
breakdown voltage called Zener voltage. It acts as the voltage regulator. Light
Emitting Diode (Led Diode): These diodes are used to convert electrical energy into
light energy. This type of diode is implemented in street lights and house lighting.
Constant Current Diodes: Used in regulating the voltage at a particular current.
(Instructables, n.d.)

Motors; Motors is a device that converts electrical power into mechanical

power. Concerning the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through the
coil, we can change the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by it.
The most common types of motors are: DC motors: DC stands for Direct current and is
responsible for taking electrical power through direct current and converting that
energy into mechanical rotation. Application of DC motors – Lathe machines, drilling
machines, fans, elevators, rolling mills, etc. Working principle of DC motors –
Whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force. Fleming’s left-hand rule decides the direction of
the force. Servo motors: servo motors, also called control motors, come with great
precision and high efficiency when compared to other regular motors. Servo can be
AC or DC.DC servo motor performance depends only on voltage, whereas AC servo
motors performance depends on both frequency and voltage. The output shaft of the
servo motor can be moved to a particular angle, velocity, and position based on the
code provided to it. Stepper motors: Stepper motor, as the name suggests, these
motors do not rotate continuously. Instead, they rotate in steps a stepper motor
operates in 3 modes, namely full step mode, half step mode, and micro-step mode,
depending on the number of steps performed for each 360-degree rotation of the
motor shaft. (Instructables, n.d.)

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 Potentiometer; The potentiometer is an electric device with three terminals
used to control speed, voltage or frequency. It also has a knob on the top for
controlling a variable. The devices can be controlled based on the resistance that is
applied. A potentiometer works similar to the voltage divider except for the fact that
it has variable outputs. (Instructables, n.d.)

4.3. Types of Electronic Components

These are of 2 types: Passive and Active Components. Both these types of
components can be either Through-Hole or SMD.
Passive Components, a passive component, also known as a passive device, is
an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can either dissipate,
absorb, or store in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive components do not
need any form of independent electrical power to operate. Passive devices are
incapable of controlling current by means of another electrical signal. There are
several types of passive components, including resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
transformers. (TE Connectivity, n.d.)

Figure 1.3.
Passive Components

Active Components, the active components are semiconductor devices

consisting of semiconductor materials. Typical electronic devices are diodes and
transistors, for performing "active" operations such as amplifying, rectifying, or
converting supplied current (signal). Semiconductors are substances (silicon,
germanium and their compound, etc.) having a resistance rate somewhere between a
conductor (iron, copper, gold, silver, etc.) and an insulator (rubber, ceramic, etc.).
Semiconductor devices can be classified into single-function discrete (diode,
transistor), optical semiconductors such as light-emitting devices (LED, laser) and
light-receiving devices (photodiode, image pickup element), sensors capable of
detecting temperature, pressure, acceleration, magnetism, and integrated circuit (IC)
loaded with multiple functions. This article describes diodes and transistors as the
most basic element and integrated circuits (ICs), which have become more important
in recent years. (Panasonic Industrial Devices, n.d.)

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 Figure 1.4
Classification of Semiconductor Devices
V. References
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