Control and Coordination

Receptors:
 Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibers that collect the
information to be conducted by the nerves.
 Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.
These are classified as follows:
o Phono-receptors:
 These are present in the inner ear.
 Functions: The main functions are hearing and balance of the
body.
o Photo-receptors:
 These are present in the eye.
 Function: These are responsible for visual stimulus.
o Thermo-receptors:
 These are present in the skin.
 Functions: These receptors are responsible for pain, touch, and
heat stimuli.
 These receptors are also known as thermoreceptors.
o Olfactory-receptors:
 These are present in the nose.
 Functions: These receptors receive smell.
o Gustatory-receptors:
 These are present in the tongue.
 Functions: These help in taste detection.

Nervous System:
 The nervous system is composed of specialized tissues, called nervous tissue.
 The nerve cell or neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system.
 It is the nervous system that is mainly responsible for control and coordination
in complex animals.

Functions of the nervous system

 Nervous system receives information from the environment.
 To receive the information from the various body.
 To act according to through muscles and glands.
  A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Neuron:
 Neuron is a highly specialized cell that is responsible for the transmission of
nerve impulses.
 The neuron consists of the following parts:
1. Cyton or cell body:
 The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair-
like structures protruding out of the margin.
 These hair-like structures are called dendrites.
 Dendrites receive the nerve impulses.
2. Axon:
 This is the tail of the neuron.
 It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon terminals.
 The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
3. Myelin sheath:
 There is an insulator cover around the axon.
 This is called the myelin sheath.
 The myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulses
from the surroundings.

Types of neuron
1. Sensory neuron:
o These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.
2. Motor neuron:
o These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
3. Association or relay neuron:
o These neurons relay the signals between the sensory neuron and motor
neuron.
Synapse:
 The point contact between the terminal branches of the axon of one neuron
with the dendrite of another neuron is called the synapse.
 Synapse ensures that the nerve impulses travel in only one direction.
 In the synapse, the electrical impulses are carried over through a chemical
substance called neurotransmitter.
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ):
NMJ is the point where a muscle fiber comes in contact with a motor neuron carrying
nerve impulses from the control nervous system.
Transmission of the nerve impulse:
 Nerve impulses travel in the following manner from one neuron to the next:
Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip of axon → synapse
→ dendrite of next neuron.
Human Nervous System:
 The nervous system in humans can be divided into two main parts
1. Central Nervous System:
 The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the
spinal cord.
 The brain controls all the functions in the human body.
 The spinal cord works as the relay channel for signals between
the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
2. Peripheral Nervous System:
 The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.
 The cranial nerves come out of the brain and go to the organs in
the head region.
 The spinal nerves come out of the spinal cord and go to the
organs which are below the head region.
 Peripheral nervous system can be further divided into 2 parts:
1. Voluntary nervous system (which is under the voluntary
control of the brain)
o For example: removing the hand from a hot iron.
2. Autonomic nervous system (which operates automatically
or involuntarily)
o For example, during running, there is an increased
demand for oxygen by the body.
o This is fulfilled by an increased breathing rate and
increased heart rate.
o The sympathetic nervous system works to increase
the breathing rate the heart rate, in this case.

Human Brain:
 Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly composed of nervous
tissue.
 The brain is covered by a three-layered system of membranes, called
meninges.
 Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges.
 The CSF provides a cushion for the brain against mechanical shocks.
Furthermore, protection.
 The human brain can be divided into three regions, viz. forebrain, midbrain,
and hindbrain.
Parts of the Human Brain:
 Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
 Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
 Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla, oblongata.
 Cerebrum:
o The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain.
o It is divided into two hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres.
o Functions of the cerebrum
 The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.
 It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile (touch) and
auditory perceptions.
 It is the site of learning and memory.
 Hypothalamus:
o The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum.
o It controls:
 Sleep and wake cycle (circadian rhythm) of the body.
 The urges for eating and drinking.
 Reflex movement of the head, eye muscles
 Respond to visual and auditory stimulus
 Cerebellum:
o Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole
structure.
o It coordinates the motor functions.
o When you are riding your bicycle, the perfect coordination between
your pedaling and steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.
o It controls posture and balance.
o It controls the precision of voluntary action.
 Medulla:
o Medulla forms the brain stem, along with the pons.
o It lies at the base of the brain and continues into the spinal cord.
 o The medulla controls various involuntary functions, like heartbeat
respiration, etc.
It controls involuntary actions.
Example: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
 Pons:
It relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher
parts of the brain like the cerebrum and midbrain also regulate respiration.
Spinal cord:
The spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts messages between different
parts of the body and brain.
Reflex Action:
 Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement of involuntary organs.
 When a voluntary organ is in the vicinity of sudden danger, it is immediately
pulled away from the danger to save itself.
 For example, when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away
your hand in a jerk.
 All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from imminent injury.
 This is an example of reflex action.
Reflex Arc:
 The path through which nerve signals, involved in a reflex action, travel is
called the reflex arc.
 The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.
 Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron → Motor neuron → Effector
(muscle)
 The receptor is the organ that comes in the danger zone.
 The sensory neurons pick signals from the receptor and send them to the
relay neuron.
 The relay neuron is present in the spinal cord.
 The spinal cord sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron.
 The effector comes into action and moves the receptor away from the danger.

 The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal cord and the signals involved in
reflex action do not travel up to the brain.
 This is important because sending signals to the brain would involve more
time.
 Although every action is ultimately controlled by the brain, the reflex action is
mainly controlled at the level of spinal cord.
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control:

Endocrine System:
 The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands.
 A ductless gland is called endocrine gland.
 Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream.
 Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands.
 Hormone is mainly composed of protein.
 Hormones assist the nervous system in control and co-ordination.
Hormones:
 These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by
specialized tissues called ductless glands.
 They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source.
 Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical
compounds called hormones.

Endocrine Gland:
A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Location Functions

Hormones Produced
Gland
Growth hormone GH stimulates growth.
Pituitary gland (GH). TSH stimulates the functioning of the
(also known as At the base of Thyroid-stimulating thyroid gland.
the master the brain hormone (TSH). FSH helps control the menstrual cycle
gland) Follicle-stimulating & stimulates the growth of eggs in the
hormone (FSH) ovaries.
Controls general metabolism and
Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
growth in the body.
Parathyroid In thyroid Regulates calcium & phosphate in
Parathormone
gland gland blood.
 The lower part helps in the development of the
of the neck and immune system.
Thymus gland Thymus hormone
upper part of It is large in young children but
chest. shrinks on attaining puberty.
Adrenal gland Prepares the body for emergency
(glands of Above kidneys Adrenalin situations and hence is also called the
emergency) Fight and flight hormone.
Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level
Sperm production, development of
Testis (male) In Scrotum Testosterone secondary sexual characters during
puberty.
Egg production, development of
Ovary (female) Near uterus Oestrogen secondary sexual characters during
puberty.

Note:
 Iodine mineral is an essential part of thyronine hormone so it is important that
we must consume iodized salt as in turn it is essential for the thyroid
gland, deficiency of iodine might cause a disease called goiter.
 When the gland produces excess parathyroid hormones, it can have negative
effects such as brittle bones and kidney stones.
 Diabetes:
1. It is due to a deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by the pancreas
that is responsible for controlling blood sugar levels.
2. Treatment: Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin
hormone which helps in regulating blood sugar levels.
 In case of flight or fight reaction to an emergency situation,
1. Adrenal glands → release adrenaline into blood → which acts on the
heart and other tissues → causes faster heartbeat → more oxygen to
muscles → reduced blood supply to the digestive system and skin →
diversion of blood to skeletal muscles → increase in breathing rate.
Feedback mechanism:
A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one substance in body
influences the level of another.
 Control and Co-ordination in Plants
Co-ordination in Plants:
 Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system.
 Plants use chemical means for control and coordination.
 Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in
plants.
 Movements in plants can be divided into two main types:
1. Tropic movement
2. Nastic movement
Tropic Movement:
 The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus
are called tropic movements.
 Tropic movements happen as a result of the growth of a plant part in a
particular direction.
 There are five types of tropic movements.
1. Geotropic movement:
 The growth in a plant part in response to gravity is called
geotropic movement.
 Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they grow
in the direction of gravity.
 Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.
2. Phototropic Movement:
 The growth in a plant part in response to light is called
phototropic movement.
 Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots
usually show negative phototropic movement.
 If a plant is kept in a container in which no sunlight reaches and a
hole in the container allows some sunlight, the stem finally grows
in the direction of the sunlight.
 This happens because of a higher rate of cell division in the part
of stem which is away from the sunlight.
 As a result, the stem bends towards the light.
 The heightened rate of cell division is attained by increased
secretion of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from
sunlight.
 3. Hydrotropic Movement:
 When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards the
nearest source of water.
 This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.
4. Thigmotropic Movement:
 The growth in a plant part in response to touch is called the
thigmotropic movement.
 Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers.
 The tendril grows in a way so that it can coil around support.
 The differential rate of cell division in different parts of the
tendril happens due to the action of auxin.
5. Chemotropic movement:
 The growth in plants due to chemical stimulus is called
chemotropism.
 The movement/growth of a pollen tube towards ovule is induced
by a sugary substance (chemical) as stimulus.

Stimulus Type of tropism

Light Phototropism
Gravity Geotropism
Chemical Chemotropism
Water Hydrotropism
Touch Thigmotropism

Nastic Movement:
 The movement which does not depend on the direction from the stimulus acts
is called nastic movement.
 For example, when someone touches the leaves of a mimosa, the leaves
droop.
 The drooping is independent of the direction from which the leaves are
touched.
 Such movements usually happen because of changing water balance in the
cells.
 When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves lose- water and
become flaccid, resulting in drooping of leaves.
Plant hormones (phytohormones):
 Plant hormones are chemicals that help to coordinate growth, development,
and responses to the environment.
 Main plant hormones are:
1. Auxin:
 Synthesized at shoot tip.
 Function: Helps in growth.
2. Gibberellin:
 Helps in the growth of the stem.
 Promotes cell differentiation and breaking dormancy of seeds
and buds.
3. Cytokinins:
 Promotes cell division.
 promotes opening of stomata.
4. Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress
hormone)

One liner points:

 Stimuli: The change in the environment to which an organism responds.
 Co-ordination: Working together of various organs of an organism in a
systematic manner to produce a proper response.
 Phyto-hormones: These are plant hormones.
 Auxin: It is a plant hormone that promotes cell enlargement and growth in
plants.
 Gibberellins: A plant hormone that promotes cell differentiation and
breaking dormancy of seeds and buds.
 Cytokinin: A plant hormone that promotes cell division and the opening of
stomata.
 Abscisic Acid: It helps in inhibiting the growth of the plant and promotes
wilting and falling of leaves and food.
 Tropism: The turning of all or part of a plant in a particular direction in
response to an external stimulus
 Nastism: A growth movement of a plant that does not determine direction
with a stimulus.
 Phototropism: Movement of plants towards a light.
 Geotropism: Movement of plants towards the gravity of earth.
 Chemotropism: Movement of plants towards chemicals.
 Hydrotropism: Movement of plants towards the water.
 Thigmotropism: Movement of plants towards a response to the touch of an
object.
 Stimuli: The change in the environment to which the organism responds.
 Co-ordination: Working together of various organs of an organism in a
systematic manner to produce a proper response.
 Neuron: Functional unit of the nervous system.
 Synapse: A microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons.
 Receptor: A cell in a sense organ which is sensitive to stimuli.
 Motor nerves: It carries the message from the brain to body parts for action.
 Sensory nerves: It carries the message from body to brain.
 Olfactory receptor: It detects smell by the nose.
 Gustatory receptor: It detects taste by a tongue.
 Thermoreceptor: It detects heat and cold by a skin.
 Photoreceptor: It detects light by eye.
 Reflex action: Sudden movement or response to the stimulus which occurs in
a very short duration of time and does not involve any will or thinking of the
brain.
 Brain: An organ in the skull which controls and regulates the activity of the
whole body and is known as the president of the body.
 Cerebrum: Main thinking part of the brain present in the forebrain area
which controls all voluntary actions.
 Cerebellum: It is present in the hindbrain area and helps in maintaining
posture and balance of the body.
 Medulla: It is present in the hindbrain area and helps in controlling voluntary
actions of the brain.
 Spinal cord: It is a cylindrical structure of nerve fibers enclosed in the
vertebral column which helps in the conduction of nerve impulses to and from
the brain.