THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

National Higher Polytechnic Institute(NAHPI)

Department of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering (MIE)

Course Code: MECE2102

Course Title: Engineering drawing-I
Credit Value: 4 (40 Hours)
(Lectures: 30 Hours – Tutorials: 10 Hours – Practices: 0 Hour)

Course Instructors:
Engr. Ewoungo Epoy & Engr. Nji Munang

LECTURE NOTES
Prepared by:
Engr. EWOUNGO EPOY IVAN ARTHUR
(Senior Mechanical Designer)
Design Engineer in charge of the Design of Complex Mechanical
Systems at the Design and Method Office -ENEM SARL- Douala
 OBJECTIVES:
To create awareness and emphasize the need for Engineering Graphics in
all the branches of engineering, to follow basic drawing standards and
conventions, to develop skills in three-dimensional visualization of
engineering component.

CONTENTS:

• CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWING

Principles of Engineering Graphics and their Significance, Drawing Instruments
and their Use, Dimensioning principles, Geometric construction.
• CHAPTER TWO: ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Principles of Orthographic Projections, Conventions in orthographic projection,
Drawing orthographic views.
• CHAPTER THREE: SECTIONS AND SECTIONAL VIEWS
Orthogonal sectional views, Types of sectional views

OUTCOME:
On completion of this course, the students will be able to:
Prepare drawings as per standards (ISO).
Solve specific geometrical problems in plane geometry involving lines, plane
figures and special Curves.
Produce orthographic projection of engineering components working from
pictorial drawings.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWING

1.1. PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING GRAPHICS AND ITS

SIGNIFICANCE
All objects begin as ideas conceived and visualized by Engineers. The engineer makes an
internal representation of an object in his mind and communicates it to others by describing its
shape and size with the help of lines, curves ad signs.
All school education is in word language. One has to learn it in order to read, write and speak.
To describe an object with respect to its shape and size in word language, one has to use so
many sentences for its complete description. Large vocabulary is required to express a
complete description of the object for proper communication. The problem becomes worse
when communication is to be done between two persons of different language backgrounds.
For such cases, interpreters who know both languages are needed to translate. Thus, using
word language for describing the shape and size of objects would be so cumbersome, if one
tries to use it universally where languages are in dozens.
Engineering drawing is a graphical language of engineers used to describe the shape and size
of an object with precision without much vocabulary. It is a language that is universally
accepted among technicians as an excellent means to convey information. Drawings are used
in many engineering fields like Mechanical drawings, Architectural drawings, Structural
drawings, Electrical and Electronics drawings. The result of creative thoughts and ideas by
a design engineer or engineering technologist are represented in the form of technical drawing
on paper. This drawing is further analysed and followed by the fabrication technicians. Thus,
Engineering drawing acts as a silent and compact language through which one can
communicate to deaf and dump individuals as well, provided they have trained eyes (that is
provided they have received an engineering drawing training).
Just like other word languages have grammar, engineering drawing has a set of universal rules
or guidelines which are to be followed so that it will be interpreted and understood properly.
Hence, studying Engineering drawing is a must for any engineer and is used in industries and
engineering projects.

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Advantages of graphical language over word language are stated below:
1. It is independent of the country and can be understood universally in same manner.
2. It offers compact description of an object.
3. It gives a clear picture in the mind quickly.
4. Complicated machines can be described by different drawings for each part and then an
assembly drawing can be made showing the relative position of the different parts.
5. It is a silent language and can be used by even the deaf and the dumb.
6. Even illiterate persons can follow it to some extent.
1.1.1. Elements of graphics
Drawings are made with lines and arcs. Each line represents an edge of a surface. Curves, arcs
and circles, define curved objects. Lines are connected according, to geometry to represent
planes and ultimately the shape of the object. Addition of numerals on the drawing define the
object for size. Figure 1.1 shows the drawing of an object for its shape and size. Lines and
curves represent its shape and the numbers mentioned are the dimensions in mm. When the
object is complicated, multi views are necessary to define it completely.

Fig. 1.1: Graphical representation of an object for shape and size

1.1.2. Methods of expression

An object can be expressed by drawing in many ways. One must select the best-suited
method to describe the shape. The object can be drawn of the same size if it can be
accommodated on the paper. If it is bigger than the paper size, then it has to be reduced and
if it is very small, it can be enlarged suitably for easy readability. Two methods of
representations used are:

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(a) Pictorial representation
(b) Orthographic projections
Pictorial representation is a view which is seen from an angle such that its three faces are
visible.
Figure 1.2(A) represents a pictorial view of a V block. A pictorial view can be isometric,
oblique or perspective. These views would be described in detail later on.

Fig. 1.2: V-block Fig 1.3: Sectional view

A majority of engineering drawings use orthographic method of representation.

Orthographic views of the V-block are shown in Fig. 1.2(B). In this method, the object is
placed in such a way that the most representative face is on the front side. The Front view
is then drawn while viewing from front. Then what is visible from the top is drawn, and is
called the TopFig.1:
view AorV-block
Plan. Side view is drawn by viewing from either the left or right
side, whichever is more informative. Thus, generally there are 3 views. Front view, Top
view and Side view. For symmetric objects 2 views may be sufficient and for thin objects,
even one view may be enough to describe the shape. These views are discussed in detail in
later on in this note. Sometimes sectional views are also drawn to show the internal details;
which otherwise would have not been possible in outside views. Figure 1.3 shows a
sectional view of a hollow part. Hatching lines are drawn in the area where the material is
cut by the cutting plane.

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1.1.3. Methods of preparing drawings
Drawings can be prepared in three different ways:
1. Free Hand Sketching
Sketching is done with pencil and paper without any aid of drawing apparatus. It is good
in learning process and for preliminary drawings. Lines may not be of the exact length in
such a drawing. Once the idea expressed through free hand sketching is finalized, the
finished drawing can be made.
2. Finished Drawings
These drawings are drawn with pencil or ink on paper or special drawing material with the
aid of drawing apparatus for good draftsmanship. Straight lines are drawn with T-square
or a drafter or setsquares (discussed in the next section of this notes). Circles and arcs are
drawn with compass and angles with protractor Letters are written using stencils for good
presentation. Special apparatus are also used at times to draw curves. The appearance of
the drawing depends upon the skill of the draftsman.
3. Computer Aided Drafting (CAD)
This is the latest method of drawing. The drawing is drawn on the screen of the computer
using softwares like AutoCAD, Solidworks, SKETCHUP. CATIA, etc. Editing becomes
quite easy in such drawings. Finally, the drawing is saved in the magnetic memory of the
computer on a hard disk or on a floppy or a CD. The output is taken with the help of a
plotter. Small drawings up to A4 size can be printed by a printer.
1.1.4. Method of size description
After defining the shape either by pictorial or orthographic views, the second step is the
size description for making a complete drawing. Size is given by dimensions for linear
distances, radii, diameters, angles, etc. Dimensions given are the actual dimensions of the
object and not the scaled dimensions for scaled views.
In production drawings, even tolerances are given. These are the maximum possible
manufacturing errors that can be tolerated on each dimension. Figure 1.5 shows dimensions
with and without tolerances. Units used are mm or metres depending upon the size of the
object.

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 Fig 1.4: Specifying dimensions of object
1.1.5. Machine drawings
Drawings of machine elements (components) are called machine drawings. They are
generally represented with views from different sides like Front view, Top view and Side
view. Dimensions on the views indicate the size.
Classification of Machine Drawing
Machine drawing is presented by the orthographic views or sometimes by isometric view
or perspective view, so that the size of the component and its shape can be fully understood.
Following are the some of the major classifications:
1. Production Drawing
A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, which shows the details of
all the dimensions, its limits, fits and tolerances with some special finishing processes
such as heat treatment, honing, lapping, surface finish, etc., to guide the craftsman on
the shop floor for the production of the component. Production drawing also includes
the material used for the product and the number of parts required for the assembled
unit. Production drawing is generally made for each component on the separate sheet.
2. Part Drawing
It is a detailed drawing of a component to understand its manufacture the drawing details
along with the various manufacturing process. The rules of engineering drawing along with
the standard codes must be followed to understand the details in the part of the drawing. It
is also known as the production drawing or the working drawing.
3. Assembly Drawing
Assembly drawing shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations
and there are several types of such drawings.

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• Design Assembly Drawing: A layout is designed for the machine which shows the clear
layout including the performance, shape and the various parts of the machine.
• Detailed Assembly Drawing: It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a
relatively smaller number of simple parts. All the dimensions and information necessary
for the construction of such parts and for the assembly of the parts are given directly on the
assembly drawing. Separate views of specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of
parts together, may also be drawn in addition to the regular assembly drawing.
• Sub-assembly Drawing: Many assemblies are assembled with many pre-assembled
components as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are known as sub-
assemblies. A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts,
that form a part in a more complicated machine. Examples of such drawings are: lathe tail-
stock, diesel engine fuel pump, carburetor, etc.
• Installation Assembly Drawing: On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few
important parts and overall dimensions of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing
provides useful information for assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts
of a machine in their correct working position.
• Assembly Drawings for Catalogues: Special assembly drawings are prepared for
company catalogues. These drawings show only the pertinent details and dimensions that
would interest the potential buyer.
1.2. DRAWING STANDARDS
Machine drawing is used to communicate information to industries. To have uniformity in
drawings they are required to follow some drawing standard approved by International
Standards Organization (ISO). Some of these ISO Standards include:
1.2.1. Size of Drawing sheets
Engineering drawings are prepared on drawing sheets of standard sizes. The use of standard
size sheet, saves paper and facilitates convenient storage of drawings.
The basic principles involved in arriving at the sizes of drawing sheets are:

Where; x and y are the sides of the sheet. By this relation the first sheet size A0 has
dimensions; x or y = 841 mm and y or x = 1189 mm.. This standard is fixed by ISO
(International Standard Organization) for ISO-A series of trimmed size sheets. ISO-A

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series (Table 1.1) are considered as basic format size of sheet and first preference to choose
for drawing purpose. The successive format sizes are obtained either by halving along the
length or doubling along the width, the areas being in the ratio 1:2 (Fig. 1.5).

Table 1.1: Preferred drawing sheet sizes (First choice) ISO-A Series

Fig 1.5: Sizes of ISO Drawing sheets

1.2.2. Drawing sheet layout

The layout of the drawing on a drawing sheet should be done in such a manner as to make
its reading easy and speedy. Fig. 1.6 (a) and fig. 1.6 (b) shows sheet layout for A2, A3 and
A4 size sheets. All dimensions are in millimetres.

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 10

10

170

10

Fig 1.6 a: Drawing sheet layout

Fig 1.6 b: Drawing sheet layout with Grid reference included

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1.2.3. Title block:
It is a small rectangle made at the right bottom corner of the sheet with information about
the drawing in it. Its size depends upon the information to be given. Following is generally
written in this block:
(a) Name of company or college
(b) Title of drawing
(c) Drawing number
(d) Scale
(e) Name of the draftsman
(f) Initials of checking authority
(g) Method of projection
(h) Date
It can be further supplemented with more information depending upon the requirement of
the company such as Material, Heat treatment, Surface finish, Name of client, etc. A title
block is shown in Fig. 1.7. It may be used for class room drawings but for a manufacturing
company some more details are given (see appendix). There is no rigidity in the
arrangement of information and the size of the block can be changed as per requirement.

Fig 1.7: Title block for a Classroom drawing

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1.2.3. Margin, Borders and frames
To protect the drawing on outside edge of sheet and also offer a space for binding and
punching, an extra space called a margin of 20 mm (Max.) is provided for all sheet size on
untrimmed size of sheet. Size of sheet after providing a margin is called trimmed size of
sheet. Border lines are drawn at a minimum distance of 20 mm from the edge of the
drawing sheet for A0 and A1 size and 10 mm for A2, A3 and A4 size. The rectangle formed
by the border lines is called frame. The drawings are drawn within the frame only.
1.2.4. Reference grid
The area between border line and edge is further divided into even number of segments by
drawing small lines in the border area perpendicular to the edge (See Fig. 1.6 b above).
These lines known as grid lines are drawn along the length and width of the drawing sheet.
The number of divisions should be such that the gap between the grid lines is more than 25
mm but less than 75 mm. Each grid segment is referred by a capital letter along one edge
and a numeral on the other edge. It starts from top left corner horizontally towards right
giving letters and downwards giving numbers. This may be repeated for the opposite edges
also. The grid reference helps in easy location of drawing details.
1.2.5. Multiple sheet drawings
Sometimes a drawing of same identification number can occupy more than one sheet. In
this case, a sequential sheet number and total number of sheets with the same number are
indicated on each sheet. For example: Sheet No. = 3/5 where 3 is sheet number and 5 is
total number of sheets. An additional title block, containing only the identification zone
may be used for all sheets after the first sheet.
1.2.6. Folding a sheet
Small sheet of A4 size can be filed directly, but bigger drawing sheets are either rolled or
folded and then filed. The sequence of folding is shown in Fig. 1.8 for different sizes of
drawing sheets. Fold at fold 1, then at fold 2, 3, etc. in sequence. Folding has to be done in
such a way that the title block (shown as T.B. in Fig. 1.8) is always on the topmost fold so
as to identify the drawing easily.

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 Fig. 1.8: Folding drawing sheets
1.2.7. Lines
Lines are used for many purposes. For example, drawing the main object outline, mar-
king center lines, mentioning dimensions, etc. Figure 1.9 shows various types of lines for
different use. Table 4.1 shows various types of lines, their appearance and use.

Fig. 1.9: Different line types used in drawing

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 Table 1.2: Types of lines and their application

Precedence of lines:
At times, some of the main lines may coincide with hidden or center lines. Since continuous
lines exhibit the shape of the object, they are given priority over all lines. If dashed lines
appear over center line, then priority is given to dashed line. Following is the precedence that
should normally be used for lines.

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1.2.8. Lettering
Graphic representation of a drawing describes only one aspect of the object, i.e. the shape.
Some information like material, surface finish, scale, title, etc. are still needed for complete
description. All this information is written either freehand or with the help of stencils. Even
though accurate and neat drawing may be drawn, the appearance of a neatly drafted
drawing may be spoiled, by poor lettering. Lettering should, therefore, be done properly in
clear, legible and uniform style. Freehand lettering is preferable than the one drawn with
instruments because it faster and therefore consumes less time. This sub-section explains
the method to write neatly and proportionately.
N.B:
Lettering in drawing should be in CAPITALS (i.e., Upper-case letters).
Lower-case (small) letters are used for abbreviations like mm, cm, etc.
Guide lines:
It is difficult to write in a straight line with freehand. Therefore, it is always better to draw
two guidelines called the top line and base line with a light pencil (Fig. 1.9.A). Letters
should fall between these two lines. The gap between these lines is the size of the capital
letters (h). Sometimes three guide lines are drawn for small letters (Fig. 1.9.B). The third
line called as waist line is drawn in between the top and bottom guide lines at a distance of
h/3 from top line.
Some letters like g, j, p, q, etc. go below the base line hence some draftsmen draw a fourth
line called as drop line. It is drawn at a distance of h/3 below the base line (Fig. 1.9C).

Fig. 1.9: Lettering Guide lines

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Table 1.3 below shows size of letters, i.e. gap between top and base line (h) for different
purposes.
Table 1.3: Recommended Size of letters (h)

7 to 15 mm

3 to 5 mm

Space between lines:

When text to be given exceeds more than one line, it has to be written on next line. The
gap between two consecutive lines of text can vary between 0.5h to 1.5h, (h is height of
the capital letters as well as numerals) depending upon space availability. However, a space
between the lines equal to ‘h’ gives a nice appearance (Fig. 1.10).

Fig. 1.10: Spacing between lines

Width of characters (letters):
English alphabets vary in width for the same height. Generally, the width of characters is
approximately 7h/10, but there are some characters like W whose width is equal to the
height ‘h’.
Spacing between letters:
Generally, the spacing between letters should be approximately be equal to (1/5)h.
However, for good appearance of some words, gap between two successive characters
Need NOT be equal, but APPEAR to be equal. In Fig. 1.11A, equal gap is given between
letters. Even then, the gap between letters R-A and A-W appears more and less between I-
N. The reason is that different shapes of the letters cause illusion. Hence, spacing is kept
unequal and adjusted in such a way that letters only appear to be drawn with equal spacing.
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Figure 1.11B shows letters with unequal gaps, but looks better than the one with equal
gaps. No rule works for spacing and hence one’s judgment and experience is required for
good result. However, the spacing between two letters may be reduced by half (i.e (1/10)h)

Fig. 1.11: Spacing between letters

Spacing between words:
Spacing between words may be equal to (4/5)h.
Lettering Procedures
1. Thin horizontal guide lines are drawn first at a distance ' h' apart.
2. Lettering Technique: Horizontal lines of the letters are drawn from left to right. Vertical,
inclined and curved lines are drawn from top to bottom.
4. After lettering has been completed, the guidelines are not erased.
General rules for lettering
• Drawing title, other information in the Title block (e.g scale, material, etc), Numbers
and letters denoting cutting planes are written in 7 to 10mm size (i.e h= 7 to 10mm).
• Short notes (e.g Sub-titles like view title) are written in 5mm size.
• Long notes and dimensions are written in 3mm size.
• Spacing between letters should be approximately (1/5)h.
• The spacing between two characters may be reduced by half if this gives a better
visual effect, as for example LA, TV; over lapped (zero spacing) in case of say LT,
TA etc., and the spacing is increased for letters with adjoining stems.
• Spacing between words may be equal to the width of alphabet M or (3/5)h.
• Spacing between lines is (3/4)h.
• Ratio of height to width for most of the CAPITAL letters is approximately = 10:6.
However, for M and W, the ratio = 10:8 for I the ratio = 10:2.
• Height of lower-case letters with stem/tail (b, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, p, q, t, y) =h.
• Ratio of height to width for lower-case letters with stem or tail = 10:5.
• Height of lower-case letters without stem or tail is approximately = (7/10) h.

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 • Ratio of height to width for most lower-case letters without stem or tail (e.g. a, c, e,
s, r) = 7: 5. However, for m and w, the ratio = 7: 7.
• For numerals 0 to 9, the ratio of height to width = 10: 5. For I, ratio = 10: 2.

1.2.9. Scale
In engineering drawing, it is often inconvenient to represent the actual size of the
object e.g. A bridge on a drawing paper. So, we generally reduce it to some
proportion so as to represent in on a drawing sheet. However, in case of small
machine parts like Screw, nut, etc., it becomes essential to increase the actual size
of the object.
The proportion by which we are enlarging or reducing the actual length of an
object on a drawing is known as scale.
Sizes of scale
There are three sizes of scale used in engineering practice, namely;
Full size scale:
The scale in which objects are drawn with actual measurements is known as full
size scale. It is written as 1:1.
1. Reduced scale:
The scale in which objects are drawn with reduced proportions is referred to as
reduced scale. Generally, the drawings are very big objects like buildings, machine
parts; town plans etc., are prepared in reduced scale. The standard proportions are:
1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000, 1:10000
for this scale, R.F < 1.
Example-If the actual size of the object is 100cm then using R.F. of 1:10, the size
of the object would be 100 x (1/10) = 10cm in drawing.
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2. Enlarged scale:
The scale in which objects are drawn with enlarged proportions is referred to as enlarged
scale. Generally, the drawings of very small objects like watches, electronic devices,
precision instruments etc. are prepared in enlarging scale. The standard enlarging scales
are: 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1 for this scale, R.F.>1
Example- If the actual size of the object is 2cm then using R.F. of 50:1, the size of the
object would be 2 x (50/1) = 100cm in drawing.
Representative fraction (R.F)
It is defined as the ratio of the length of an object on a drawing to the actual length of the
object (N.B: Both lengths being in the same unit).

1.2.10. Dimensioning
The views of an object drawn on paper to some suitable scale enables the manufacturer
to have a complete idea about the object’s physiology (appearance). Expression of detail
information about the actual object length, width, height, position and sizes of holes, etc.,
in drawings with appropriate units of measurement and properly placed lines, symbols
and notes is called dimensioning. i.e. Dimensioning is the process of specifying part’s
information by use of lines, numbers, symbols and notes.

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 General of principles of dimensioning
• It should be placed outside the view.
• It should be taken from a visible line rather than hidden lines.
• Dimensioning of a centre line should be avoided except when the centre line passes
through the centre of a hole.
• The dimension of a given feature should be placed on the view or section in which
the feature is much clearer.
• Each dimension should be dimensioned once on a drawing.
• Each drawing should have the same dimensional unit.
• More than one dimension should not be used for features of the same parts.

Elements of Dimensioning
A dimension consists of the following elements as shown in Fig. 1.12:
(a) Extension line
(b) Leader line
(c) Dimension line
(d) A pair of arrows, or only one arrow if a leader is used
(e) Dimensional values (Numbers with or without tolerances)

Fig. 1.11: Elements of Dimensioning

i. Dimension line: This is a continuous thin line having both ends marked with arrow
heads.
ii. Extension line: This is a continuous thin line drawn to indicate the points on a
drawing to which a given dimension applies.

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iii. Leader line or pointer line: This is a thin continuous line drawn to specify a
dimension, note, part number, etc. It generally an inclined thin line followed by a
small horizontal line. An arrow head is drawn at the pointing end of the leader on the
object.
iv. Arrow heads: Arrow heads are used to mark the ends of a dimension. Arrowheads
are drawn at each end of the dimension line, such that their pointing edges are
opposite to each other. Arrows can be of any shape: Open arrow or Closed arrow.

Fig. 1.12: Opened and Closed arrow heads

v. Dimensional value: This is a number placed above the dimension line or in between
a broken dimension line to indicate the size of a dimension.
Dimensioning of common features
1. Dimensioning diameters:

Fig.1.13: Dimensioning Diameters

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2. Dimensioning radii:

Fig. 1.14: Dimensioning Radii

3. Dimensioning arcs:

Fig. 1.15: Dimensioning arcs

4. Dimensioning chords:
A chord is a linear distance between two points on an arc.

Fig. 1.16: Dimensioning chords

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Types of Dimensioning systems

1. Aligned System:
In this type of dimensioning systems, Dimensions are placed above the dimension
lines which are drawn without any break and written parallel to them.

Fig.1.17: Aligned dimensioning system

2. Unidirectional system:
Dimensions are inserted by breaking the dimension lines at the middle.

Fig.1.18: Unidirectional dimensioning system

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List of basic equipment used in drawing
1. Drawing Pencil:
This is a hand-held instrument containing an interior strip of solid material that
produces marks used to write and draw, usually on paper. The marking material is
most commonly graphite, typically contained inside a wooden sheath. Mechanical
pencils are nowadays more commonly used, especially 0.5mm thick Fig.1. 19.

Fig 1.19: Drawing pencil

2. Eraser:
Erasers are used for removing pencil writings. Erasers have made of rubbery material,
and they are often white. Typical erasers are made of rubber, but more expensive or
specialized erasers can also contain vinyl, plastic, or gum-like materials. Fig.1. 20.

Fig.1.20: Eraser

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3. T-Square:
A T-square is a technical drawing instrument primarily used for drawing horizontal
lines on a drafting table, it is also used to support and guide set squares to draw
vertical lines. The name “T-square” comes from the general shape of the instrument
where the horizontal member of the T (blade) slides on the side of the drafting table.
Fig.1.21.

Fig.1.21: T-Square
4. Set square:
A set square or triangle is a tool used to draw straight vertical lines at a particular
planar angle to a baseline. The most common form of Set Square is a triangular piece
of transparent plastic with the centre removed. The outer edges are typically beveled.
These set squares come in two forms, both right triangles: one with 90-45-45-degree
angles, and the other with 90-60-30-degree angles. Fig.1.22.

Fig.1.22: Set squares

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5. Drawing board:
Drawing board (Fig 1.23) is one of the main equipment of a Draughtsman. It is used
for supporting the drawing paper/tracing paper for making drawings. It is made of
well-seasoned wood strips of about 20 mm thick, free from knots and warping. It
should be softer enough to allow insertion and removal of drawing pins.

Fig.1.23: Drawing board

6. Divider:
A divider is a drawing instrument used for dividing distances into equal parts or for
laying off a series of equal spaces. Dividers like shown in Fig.2.24 are designed to be
operated with one hand and are used for making distances or transferring
measurements.

Fig.1.24: Divider

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7. Compass:
Compasses are usually made of metal, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge
which can be adjusted. They are used to draw circles and arcs.

Fig.1.24: Compass
8. Protractor:
The Protractor is a circular or semi-circular tool for measuring angles. The units of
measurement used are degrees.

Fig.1.25: Protractor
9. Ruler:
A ruler is used to measure distances in millimetres, centimetres or inches and to draw
straight lines.

Fig.1.26: Ruler
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10. French curves:
They are used to draw oblique curves (non-circular curves).

Fig. 1.27: French curves

➢ Steps for fixing a paper on the drawing board

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Fig.1.28: Fixing paper to drawing board
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1.3. GEOMETRIC CONSTUCTION
The geometric construction forms the basis for all technical drawings. The purpose of
the geometric construction is to accurately develope plane geometric shapes ranging
from squares, triangles, and three-dimensional cylinders to complex irregular curves
and ellipses. These constructions are normally produced without the aid of a scale, but
rather with simple drafting tools. Engineers, designers, and drafters regularly perform
the task of producing geometric construction in their work, applying the principles of
plane geometry. The process involved in the production of geometric constructions
requires a basic understanding of plane geometry. Geometric construction skills can be
acquired and demand precision and the correct use of drafting instruments.
In developing geometric constructions it is important that drafting tools be in good
condition. 4H to 6H leads are normally used for constructions that produce very
lightweight lines. These lines need not necessarily be erased when the construction is
completed. A small error or inaccuracy in the solving of a geometric problem could
result in a serious error in the final construction.

1.3.1. Lines
I. Bisecting a line
(i) Let AB be the given line. With centre A and radius greater than half AB, draw
arcs on both sides of AB.
(ii) With centre B and the same radius, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs
at C and D.
(iii) Draw a line joining C and D and cutting AB at E.
Then AE = EB = 2 AB. Further, CD bisects AB at right angles.

Fig.1.29: Bisecting a given line into two equal parts

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II. Perpendicular to a line
(i) Draw line AB and locate point P anywhere but not on AB.
(ii) P as a center and with arbitrary radius R1, draw arcs that intersects AB at C and D.
(iii) Adjusting the compass radius R2 to greater than R1, and C and D as a center, strike
two arcs intersecting at O.
(iv) Use straight edge to draw line PO. PO is the required perpendicular to AB.

II. Parallel lines

Let AB be the given line and P the point.
(i) With centre P and any convenient radius, draw an arc OC cutting AB at E.
(ii) With centre E and the same radius, draw an arc cutting AB at F.
(iii) With centre E and radius equal to FP, draw an arc to cut OC at Q.
(iv) Draw a straight line through P and Q. Then this is the required line parallel to AB.

Fig.1.30: Drawing two parallel lines

III. Dividing a line into n-number of congruent lines (equal parts): case of n=5
(i) Draw a line segment AB.
(ii) Either from A or B, draw a line at any convenient acute angle to AB. Here from B
and label its one end as C.
(iii) From the intersection point of the lines (B) with compass or scale, step off as many
equal divisions as needed, in this case five equal parts.
(iv) Draw a line from the last (fifth) interval to A.
(v)Through each of the other points on line BC, draw lines parallel to line A5
intersecting AB. Now line AB is divided into five equal parts. Use a triangle and T-
square to draw the parallel lines.

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 Fig.1.30: Dividing a line into 5-equal parts

IV. Dividing a circle

Given a circle of radius R, to divide it into 12 equal parts along its circumference,
the geometric construction procedure is as follows.
(i) Draw two diagonals AB and CD at right angles to each other cutting the circle at A,
B and C, D.
(ii) With A as centre, and radius equal to the given radius of the circle, draw arcs cutting
the circle at 2 and 7.
(iii) Similarly, with B as centre, and with the given circle radius, draw arcs to cut the
circle at 3 and 6.
(iv) Similarly, from points C and D as centre, and with the given radius of circle,
draw arcs to cut the circle at 1, 4 and 5, 8 respectively.
(v) Thus, dividing it at the cuts are the required twelve equal parts of the circle.

Fig.1.31: Dividing a circle into 12-eqaual segments

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V. Bisecting an angle
1. Draw the angle ABC.
2. Set the compass to any radius R.
3. Mark off two points E and F from A equal to the radius R on AC and AB
respectively.
4. With centers at E and F, strike intersecting arcs of equal radius r at point D.
5. Draw line AD. This line bisects the angle ABC.

Fig.1.32: Bisecting an angle

VI. Trisecting an angle
1. Draw an angle AOB.
2. With O as center, draw an arc with any radius R to intersect line OA at C and line
OB and D.
3. Divide the arc CD to the required number of parts (say 5) by trial and error using
your divider or compass.
4. Connect the vertex O and the division points on the arc to get the angle divided.

Fig.1.33: Dividing an angle

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VII. Polygons
• Constructing a triangle given the lengths of its sides
1. Draw line AB.
2. With center at A and radius AC, draw an arc.
3. With center at B and radius BC, draw another arc that cut the previous arc at C.
4. Connect point C to A and B.

Fig.1.34: Constructing a triangle given three sides

• Constructing a triangle given two sides and an angle
1. Draw the base line AB.
2. Draw line AD at an angle of θ from AB, using any proper instrument.
3. Using A as a center and AC as a radius, strike an arc on AD to get point C.
4. Connect C to B. ABC is the required triangle.

Fig.1.35: Constructing a triangle given two sides and included angle

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• Constructing a square given length of side AB
1. Draw a horizontal line AB.
2. With a T-square and a 45° triangle draw diagonals from A and B at 45°.
3. Draw perpendicular from A and B intersecting the diagonals at C and D.
4. Connect CD the points of intersection.

Fig.1.36: Constructing a square given length

• Constructing a square given length of diagonal AB
1. Draw horizontal line AB.
2. Locate O at the midpoint of AB.
3. Draw CD through O, perpendicular to and slightly longer than AB.
4. With T- square and a 45° triangle, draw AF and BE at 45◦ to AB intersecting CD
at E and F.
5. Connect AE and FB.

Fig.1.37: Constructing a square given length of diagonals

35
• Constructing a regular pentagon in a given circumscribing circle
1. Draw horizontal diameter AB and vertical diameter CD intersecting at O.
2. Draw the circle with radius equal to half of AB.
3. Construct the midpoint of OB and mark as E.
4. With E as a center and radius equal to CE, strike the arc CF to intersect AB at F.
5. With C as a center and CF as a radius, strike the arc FG to intersect the circle at G.
Note: A line from G to C is one side of the pentagon.
6. Set a compass to GC and lay off this interval from C around the circle.
7. Connect the points of intersection.

Fig.1.36: Constructing a regular pentagon in a given

circumscribing circle

36
• Constructing a regular hexagon in a given circumscribing circle
1. Draw diameters AB and CD intersecting at O.
2. OB as radius, draw the circle.
3. Starting from C and with radius OB, lay off points around the circle.
4. Connect the points.
Note: The diameter of the circumscribing circle is equal to the long diameter (across
corner) of the hexagon. The radius of the circumscribing circle (which is equal to one
half the long diameter of the hexagon) is equal to the length of side of the regular
hexagon.

Fig.1.37: Constructing a regular hexagon in a given circumscribing circle

37
 Application exercises
i. Draw a line of 200mm full length. Then redraw the line to the following scales, 1:2,
1:5 and 1:10.
ii. Draw a line of 10mm full length. Then redraw the line to the following scales: 2:1,
5:1, and 10:1.
iii. Construct a circle whose full diameter is 150mm. Then, using the same center,
redraw the circles to the following scales: 1:2, 1:5, and 1:10.
iv. Draw a circle whose full radius is 10mm. Then, using the same center, redraw the
circles to the following scales: 2:1, and 5:1.
v. Match the following (write the letter of the correct definition on line to the left):

38
vi. The following figure shows technical lines that describe a piece of machinery with a
swinging arm. Identify the type of line represented by each number.

39
 CHAPTER 2

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

2.1. PRINCIPLE OF PROJECTION

If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet
a plane, the object is said to be projected on that plane. The figure formed by joining,
in correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the plane, is called the
projection of the object. The lines from the object to the plane are called projectors.
2.2. METHODS OF PROJECTION
The term 'projection' can be defined as the representation of an object on a picture planes
as it would appear to an observer stationary at a point and viewing along the direction of
projection. Hence, in order to carry out the process of projection, five major constituting
elements should be fulfilled:
i. An object to be projected.
ii. An observer who is viewing the object.
iii. A station point where the observer is located.
iv. Projection rays or projectors emitting from the observer to the picture plane.
v. A plane of projection or picture plane on which the projection is made.
Projection methods are broadly classified into two namely: Parallel projection and
Central or Perspective projection.

2.2.1. Central or Perspective projection

It is a type of projection made on a picture plane in such a way that an observer is located
at a finite (fixed distance) from the object being projected, hence the visual rays projected
from the different corners of the object converge to the single point of viewing, the
projectors would converge to a point called station point or point of sight of an observer
as illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

40
 Fig. 2.1: Principle of Perspective projection
In perspective projection, the perspective view formed on the picture plane is of a
different size and shape as compared to the actual object. However, As the observer
moves further and further away from the object, the angle between the visual rays
reflected from the different corners of the object becomes more and more gentle. If we
can therefore place the observer at very large distance from the object, we can assume
that these visual rays become parallel with each other.

2.2.2. Parallel projection

Parallel projection is based on the assumption of observer being at large distance without
losing the ability to see the object. In parallel projection, the observer is located at an
infinite distance from the object being projected, therefore the projectors will be parallel
to each other.

Fig. 2.2: Principle of parallel projection

In parallel projection, the view formed on the picture plane is of the same size and shape
as that of the object. Parallel projection can be further divided into two groups depending
on the angle formed between projectors and picture plane. These are:

41
A) Oblique projection:
Oblique projection is a type of parallel projection obtained in such a way that the
projection lines are made to be oblique or at an angle other than 90° to the picture plane.
Hence the three principal faces of the object will be seen on a single picture plane.
B) Orthographic projection:
Orthographic projection is a type of parallel projection obtained in such a way that the
projection lines are made to be perpendicular or at an angle of 90° to the picture plane.
Hence only one principal face of the object will be seen on the picture plane.
Orthographic projection is further classified into multi-view projection and
axonometric projection.

2.2.3. Multi-view projection

In multi-view projection more than one projection is used to give complete size and shape
description of the object while in axonometric projection a single view is sufficient to
describe the object completely. However, since each of the views in a multi-view
projection shows only two principal dimensions of an object at a time without any
suggestion of the third principal dimension, such a representation can convey full
information only to the professionals familiar with the graphic language i.e. technical
drawing used mainly by engineers, architects, draftsman, and contractors.
To this end, the professionals use conventional picture representations to communicate
with other people who do not possess the required visualization skill to construct an
object in the mind from its multi-view drawing. This pictorial representation of an object
showing the three faces on a single plane to represent an object in its realistic appearance
is known as pictorial drawing. That is Pictorial drawing is a drawing by which shape
and size of an object is expressed in three dimensions to show the three faces (i.e. height,
width and depth).
N.B: Axonometric projection, oblique and perspective projections are all Pictorial
drawings.
Multi-view drawings are two dimensional drawings whereas pictorial drawings are three
dimensional drawings. In spite of its advantage, pictorial drawing has the following
limitations as compared to a Multiview drawing:

42
✓ Some pictorial drawings such perspective drawings have a distorted and unreal
appearance of object being represented.
✓ It relatively requires more time to prepare pictorial representation of an object.
✓ It is difficult to give all dimensions.
Due to these limitations, pictorial drawings are commonly used for technical illustrations,
pipe diagrams, patent office records, and architectural drawings, to supplement multi-
view orthographic drawings.
2.2.4. Principal planes of projection
There are three planes perpendicular to each other, which are the basis of multi-view
projection. These are:
• Horizontal projection plane.
• Frontal or vertical plane.
• Profile or side plane.
The position of these planes is illustrated on the figure below (Fig. 2.3). The lines of
intersection of these three planes are called reference lines.

Fig. 2.3: Basic/principal planes of projection

Fig. 2.4: Quadrants of projection

43
In Multiview projection, lines of sight (projectors) are perpendicular to the planes of
projection. The projection of an object on the vertical/frontal projection plane is
commonly known as front view. Similarly, horizontal projection of an object is called
top view and the profile projection of an object is known as side view.
2.2.5. Method of projection
Orthographic projections are drawn using any one of the following methods:
• First angle method (European standard):
In this method, the object is placed in the first quadrant formed by the Principal Planes
(Fig. 2.4) and hence called First angle method. A point P is arbitrarily put between these
planes (Fig. 2.5A). The observer is placed in front of the front/vertical plane such that
the object lies between the observer and the projection plane. When the point P is viewed
from front, top and side, it is seen on vertical plane, horizontal plane and side plane at Pf,
Pt and Ps locations respectively. In this method, top view is drawn at the bottom of front
view and the right-side view is drawn on the left-hand side of the front view.

Fig. 2.5: First angle method of projection

• Third angle method (American standard):
In this method, the object is placed in the third quadrant formed by principal planes (Fig.
2.4) and hence called Third angle method. In this arrangement, when the object is viewed
from the top, the horizontal plane covers the object. Similarly, side plane covers the
object for side view. Therefore, planes are assumed transparent for the object to be seen.
See Fig. 2.6 where the object is shown in the third quadrant with transparent planes. If a

44
point P is placed in third quadrant, it is seen on vertical plane, horizontal plane and side
plane at Pf, Pt and Ps locations respectively.
The planes are turned about OH and OV in the direction of the arrow, so that they all
align in one common plane. It can be seen that the projection of the object for top view
Pt appears at the top of the front view Pf. Similarly, right side view Ps appears on the
right side of front view. Thus, the relative positions of top and side views are in contrast
to First angle method. Both the methods are accepted in industry.

Fig. 2.6: Third angle method of projection

Comparing first and third angle projections

Let consider a block as shown below. Using the first angle projection method, the front,
top and side views of the block are as shown below:

45
 Fig. 2.7: First angle method of projection

Fig. 2.8: Projection planes unfolded for the case of first angle projection
Note that the views are arranged in such a way that the top view is always directed
below the front view and the left side view is directly to the right of the front view.

Interior edges of box not seen by

the observer (and are therefore
represented with hidden lines)

Fig. 2.9: Third angle method of projection

46
 Fig. 2.10: Projection planes unfolded for the case of third angle projection

Note here that, in the third angle projection system, the top view is placed directly above
the front view and the right-side view is placed directly to the right of the front view.
This relative arrangement of the views is the one which distinguishes multi-view
drawings whether they are prepared by the third angle projection system or the first angle
projection system.
Symbol for projection method
The projection method adopted for a drawing is shown by a symbolic figure drawn in the
title block. It is a frustum of a cone with its axis horizontal, for which front and side view
are drawn. Figure 2.11 shows these symbols.

Fig. 2.11: Symbolic representation for projection method

47
 Worked examples:
1)

2)

3)

48
 PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
Given that the machine component in the figure 2.12 below gets bad
during a given production process at DAGEO GUINESS S.A As one
of the Engineers in the company, you are required to produce an
engineering drawing for the manufacturing of a new part in multiview
projections so that the part can rapidly be manufactured at the
mechanical workshop and replaced for the production process to resume
as early as possible.
(N.B: All dimensions are in millimetres).

Fig. 2.12: Machine part to be manufactured

49
 CHAPTER 3

ORTHOGRAPHIC SECTIONAL VIEWS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic method of representing parts for designs by views, or projections, has been explained
in Chapter 2. However, we are frequently confronted with the necessity of showing more or less
complicated interiors of parts that cannot be shown clearly by means of hidden lines. We
accomplish this by slicing through the part as one would cut through an apple or a melon.
In such cases, imaginary cutting planes are made to pass through objects exposing their interior
features. The revealed view of the object is then drawn with the conventions of orthographic
projection and it is called Orthographic sectional view. Wherever the cutting plane cuts the
material, inclined lines at 45° called section lines or hatching lines are used to show the material
area. The hatching lines may vary according to the material from which the object is made.

Fig.3.1: projected Sectional view

50
3.2. CUTTING PLANE LINE
The cutting plane is indicated in a view adjacent to the sectional view, Fig 3.3. In this view, the
cutting plane appears edgewise or as a line, called the cutting plane line. A cutting plane line is
represented either by a line pattern composed of alternate long dashes and a pair of short
dashes or equal short dashes. And such lines should be made with a well sharpened medium
thick pencil like an H or 2H Pencil. Cutting plane lines are drawn having a heavy weight with
arrow heads which indicates the viewing direction. At the end of the arrows upper case letters
may be attached in order to give reference to the section made. This is especially necessary when
we use more than one cutting planes.

Fig.3.2: Cutting plane line

51
3.3. SECTION LINE/HATCHING LINE
section lines are light thin lines, usually drawn as a 45-degrees inclined line in case of general
purpose. These lines are represented on the surface of the object which the cutting plane have
direct contact. The crosshatched surfaces of the object were represented as a hidden line but now
as a visible surface. Symbolic section lining may be used in assembly drawings in cases where
it is desirable to distinguish the different materials used. Section lining symbols for
representation of some commonly used engineering materials are shown in the figure below.

concrete

Fig.3.3: Symbols for section materials

52
The following main rules should be observed while drawing section line:

• Section lines are drawn at 45° to the major boundaries

• The spacing between successive section lines should be uniform, around 1mm to 3mm
depending upon the size of the sectioned area of the object.

• When a rib, a web or any thin plate in an object is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its largest
surface, such that the thickness of the plate reduces if cut by the cutting plane, the concerned
thin plate is shown without cross-hatching lines to avoid the false impression of thickness or
solidity. The view is drawn by the assuming that the thin plate remains uncut. However, if
the section plane is perpendicular to the largest surface of the thin plate, so that the thickness
of the plate remains the same after cutting, in this case hatching lines should be drawn.

Fig.3.4: Ribs not cut if CP is parallel to largest surface.

53
3.5. VISUALIZING A SECTION VIEW

Fig.3.5: Visualising section view

3.6. TYPES OF SECTION VIEWS

3.6.1. Full sections

The sectional view obtained by passing the cutting plane fully across the entire object is called
a full section. The cutting plane appears as a straight line and will never bend. This type of
sectional view is mostly used when the expected details to be shown appear:
1. non-symmetrically
2. aligned with a certain axis
3. centrally without other details
In general, the following points should be noted when making full sectional view of an object:
• In making the sectioned view, one half of the object is imagined to be removed
• Invisible lines behind the revealed surfaces are usually omitted
54
• Visible lines behind the section should be drawn.
• Only the surfaces actually cut by the section plane are crosshatched.

Fig.3.6 : Full section

Different positions and orientation of sectioning plane to give full details about the internal
construction of the object and any one of the following can be used:

(a) Straight cutting plane in one line can be used if all the hidden objects are in one line (Fig.
3.6A).

(b) Offset cutting planes can be used if the hidden objects are not in one line (Fig. 3.6B).

(c) Inclined cutting planes can be useful when neither single line nor offset sectioning is useful
and the shape of the object is inclined (Fig. 3.6C).

(d) Inclined and offset cutting planes can be combined for objects as shown in Fig.3.6D

A single straight cutting plane can be used if all the hidden objects are in one line (Fig. 3.6A).
If the hidden objects are not in one line (Fig. 3.6B) then an offset cutting plane can be used.
Neither single line nor offset sectioning can be useful when the shape of the object is inclined
(Fig. 3.6C). For such cases, an inclined cutting plane is more useful. A combination of inclined
and offset cutting plane can be used for objects as shown in Fig. 3.6D.

55
 Fig.3.6: Full section cutting planes

3.6.2 Half sections

This method of sectioning is useful for objects symmetrical about the central axis. Half of the
view is an outside view and the other half is in section. For half section, two cutting planes are
assumed at right angles to each other containing center lines of the object (Fig. 3.7A). One
quarter of the object between these cutting planes is assumed to be removed. Thus, one view
gives both the internal and external details. The viewing direction is shown by an arrow. The
object in other views should be shown as a full object and not three-quarter. The cutting plane
need not be always at the center of the object. It can be at a place other than the center but still
called as half section (Fig. 3.7B).

56
 Fig.3.7: Half section

3.6.3. Broken out (partial section)

When it is necessary to show only a partial section of a view to expose interior details limited
by a break line, is known as broken out section. Such sections may be used to show only a
portion of the interior of an object without losing important exterior features. The object is
assumed to be cut by an irregular cutting plane around the portion of the object to be displayed
and the front part is removed by breaking it away. The breaking away is represented by an
irregular freehand line, known as short break line as shown in the figure below.

Fig.3.8: Broken out section

57
3.6.4. Revolved sections
When the section is to be drawn for a small area of the object, a revolved section can be used.
The section plane is at right angles to the axis of the object and can be positioned anywhere. See
the cross-section of an arm of a pulley (Fig. 3.9A) shown by a revolved section which otherwise
would have been difficult to show. For a crane hook (Fig. 3.9B), revolved sections are shown at
different locations as the section is changing continuously along the axis.

Fig.3.9: Revolved section

3.6.5. Removed sections

The purpose of removed section is the same as that for revolved section except that the sectional
views are not drawn there itself, but at a place adjacent to it. Fig.3.10A shows a turbine blade
having different cross-section and angle of twist along its length. Each view is designated by a
pair of letters such as A-A, B-B, etc. A taper block shown in Fig. 3.10B shows different sections
along its length.

Fig.3.10: Removed section

58
NOTE

59
 Tutorials

I) Pictorial views of objects are shown in fig. 20-33 to fig. 20-70. Draw, scale full
size, views of each object as stated below. The front view in each case, should be
drawn as seen in the direction of the arrow X. Unless otherwise specified, use first-
angle projection method. Insert all dimensions in the views.

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