EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN CONTEXT Perspective #3: Educational technology as vocational

THE BIG PICTURE training. Also known as technology education, this per-
spective originated with industry trainers and vocational educators
Whiteboard -a device that would allow her to project information from in the 1980s.
a computer to a screen and then manipulate it either with special pens Perspective #4: Educational technology as computer systems
or hands. (a.k.a. educational computing and instruc-
tional computing). This view began in the 1950s with the advent
INTRODUCTION: THE “BIG PICTURE” ON TECHNOLOGY of computers and gained momentum when they began to be used
IN EDUCATION instructionally in the 1960s.
Paul Saettler (1990) noted in this chapter’s opening quote,
educational technology is not new at all, and it is by no means limited How This Text Defines Technology in Education
to the use of devices. » Processes —For the processes, or instructional proce-
dures for applying tools, we look to (1) learning the-
ories based on the sciences of human behaviour.
Why We Need the “Big Picture” » Tools —This text looks at the roles technology tools
-It helps new learners develop mental pictures of the field, what play as delivery media, instructional systems, and tech-
Ausubel (1968) might call cognitive frameworks, through which to nology support.
view all applications and consider best courses of action. » Educational technology- is a combination of the processes and
tools involved in addressing educational needs and problems, with
Several types of information help form this framework: an emphasis on applying the most current digital and information
1. Key terminology tools.
2. Reflecting on the past » Integrating educational technology- refers to the process of
3. Considering the present determining which digital tools and which methods for implementing
4. Looking ahead to the future them are the most appropriate responses to given educational
needs and problems.
Association for Education Communications and Technology » Instructional technology- is the subset of educational
(AECT) technology that deals directly with teaching and learning
-Initially focused on technology as audio- visual (AV) devices and applications (as opposed to educational administrative
media for library- media specialists and librarians; now applications).
focuses on using any resources in ways that improve teaching and 1975, small, stand-alone, desktop computers called
learning microcomputers became a major turning point in the history of the
International Technology and Engineering Educators field of educational technology.
Association (ITEEA) Internet, which was already a worldwide collection of computer
-Initially focused on skills with manufacturing, printing, woodworking, networks that could exchange information by using a common
and metals; then on technology-related careers and promoting software standard, became even more functional.
technological literacy; now focuses on STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, Math) education/careers. World Wide Web- introduced in 1993 as a system of connecting
International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) Internet sites through hypertext links, transformed the field and
-Initially focused on computer systems to support and deliver marked the beginning of the third era of educational technology.
instruction; now focuses on all electronic devices and systems
to support teaching and learning The pre-microcomputer era. In this era, both computer companies
and educators learned much at this time about the role technology
was destined to play in education and who could best shape that
Until 1988: the International Council for Computers in role.
Education (ICCE)
IBM (International Business Machines Corporation)
Educational technology -is the study and ethical practice of Patrick Suppes- Stanford University professor and
facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, “Grandfather of CAI”
using, and managing appropriate technological processes and -developed the Coursewriter language to create reading and
resources. mathemat ics drill-and-practice lessons.
-is the full range of digital hardware and software used to -Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC)
support teaching and learning across the curriculum. Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations
(PLATO) system
Technology education is problem-based learning utilizing - developed by the Control Data Corporation
Computer-managed instruction (CMI) -systems based on
math, science and technology principles.
mastery learning models, such as the American Institutes for
Research’s Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs
Perspectives That Define Educational Technology (PLAN) and Pittsburgh’s individually prescribed instruction (IPI).
Saettler (1990) says that the earliest references to the term ed
ucational technology were by radio instruction pioneer W. W. The microcomputer era. The introduction of microcomputers in
Charters in 1948, and instructional technology was first used by the mid-1970s wrested control of educational computers from
audiovisual expert James Finn in 1963. companies, universities, and school districts and placed them in the
hands of teachers and schools.
Perspective #1: Educational technology as media and The Internet era- information superhighway
audiovisual communications.
This perspective grew out of the audiovisual (AV) movement in the Pre-Microcomputer Era
1930s, when higher education instructors proposed that media such 1950- Computer-driven flight simulator trains MIT pilots. First
as slides and films. computer used for instruction
Perspective #2: Educational technology as instructtional 1959- First computer used with school children IBM 650 computer
systems and instructional design. This view orig inated with post- teaches binary arithmetic in NYC
World War II military and industrial trainers who were faced with 1960–1970- University time-sharing systems
preparing large numbers of personnel quickly. Faculty/students in universities across the country use mainframe
systems for programming and shared utilities.
Microcomputer Era HANDHELDS- (cell phones, ebook readers, smart pens)
1977- First microcomputers enter schools DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES—These devices support whole-
-Using desktop systems, classroom teachers begin to take back Class or large-group demonstrations of information from a
control of instructional and administrative applications from district computer. (interactive whiteboards, projection systems)
data- processing offices Clickers (a.k.a., student response systems )- which are wireless
1980s- Microcomputer applications spawn movements Field focuses devices used for interactive polling of student answers to teacher
on software publishing initiatives and teacher authoring software. questions in face-to-face classes.
The computer literacy computers-as-tools approach gives way to IMAGING TECHNOLOGIES- (cameras, scanners)
Logo’s computer-based, problem-solving approach. PERIPHERALS—These are input devices, such as key- boards
Mid 1980s–1990s – Integrated Learning systems emerge schools and mice (to get information and requests into the computer for
processing), and output devices. (I/O DEVICES) (mice, computer
Mobile Technologies monitors, keyboards, printers, clickers, synthesizers)
2005- Social networking sites, such as Facebook, gain popularity EXTERNAL STORAGE DEVICES- (hard drives)
2007- Amazon releases first Kindle ebook reader
2008- Partnership for 21st Century Skills creates framework Types of Software Applications in Schools
2010- Apple releases first iPad handheld computer » Instructional —Programs designed to teach skills or information
through demonstrations, examples, expla nations, or problem
Early 1970s- Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) movement solving.
Emerges » Productivity —Programs designed to help teachers and students
mid-to-late 1970s- Mainframe and mini-computer applications plan, develop materials, communicate, and keep records. These
dominate field include word processing, spreadsheet, database, and email
late 1970s- CAI movement declines; computer literacy movement programs.
begins » Administrative —Programs that administrators at school, state,
Arthur Luehrmann- coins term computer literacy for skills in and district levels use to support record keeping and exchanges of
programming and using software tools (e.g., word processing) information among various agencies.
Molnar (1978)- warns that non–computer literate students will
be educationally disadvantaged SOCIAL ISSUES
1. Quality of life concerns
Internet Era Spyware- or software that is placed on a computer without the
1993- World Wide Web (WWW) is born First browser (Mosaic) user’s knowledge for the purpose of gathering information about
transforms a formerly text-based Internet into a combination of text them (usually to sell to marketing firms).
and graphics. Teachers enter the “Information Superhighway” Radio frequency identification (RFID)- an electronic monitoring
1994- Internet use explodes system that can track the location of the chip’s wearer, create
1995- Virtual schooling begins worries about privacy.
1998- International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) 2. Fears about technology overuse.
creates standards ISTE sponsors creation of National Educational 3. Fears about technology misuses
Technology Standards (NETS) to guide technology skills, first for Sexting- they may not hesitate to send out explicit photos or text
students, then for teachers and administrators messages on their cell phones or through the Internet.
I-dosing- or going to sites that allegedly induce a state of ecstasy
Virtual schooling, or “instruction- in which (K–12) students and from listening to music, is an unlikely, but still troubling,
teachers are separated by time and/or location and interact via phenomenon.
computers and/or telecommunications technologies” 4. Risks of online social networking
Electronic books, or ebooks- which are texts in digital form, are Cyberporn- or pornographic Internet sites, and online predators.
available on computers, ebook readers, and cell phones. Cyberbullying- or online harassment in social networks, is a
growing concern that mirrors similar bullying on school campuses.
What We Have Learned from the Past 5. Problems due to malware, spam, and other malicious
1. No technology is a panacea for education Actions
2. Teachers usually do not develop technology materials or Malware- short for malicious software, is any software specifically
curriculum. designed to damage, destroy, disrupt operations, or spy on the
3. “Technically possible” does not equal “desirable, feasible, or operation of computers.
inevitable.” Viruses- a type of malware, are programs written specifically to do
4. Technologies change faster than teachers can keep up. harm or mischief to programs, data, and/ or hardware include: logic
5. Older technologies can be useful. bombs, worms, and Trojan horses.
- Technology in edu cation is an area especially prone to what Spyware- is malware that secretly gathers information stored on a
Roblyer (1990) called the “glitz factor.” person’s computer.
6. Teachers always will be more important than technology Spam -is any unsolicited email message or website posting, usually
-Naisbitt’s (1984) MegaTrends sent for the purpose of advertising products or services or soliciting
funds.
Phishing- attempts, or emails that falsely claim to be a legitimate
Digital Technology Tools business in order to glean private information to be used for identity
 Hardware or Equipment theft.
 Software or programs Zombies, or computers implanted with a program that puts it under
Mobile devices, or portable, handheld computer equipment the control of someone else without the knowledge of the computer
- Cellphone user.
- Ipad
Cloud computing- which is using software stored outside one’s own Educational Issues
computer on servers that are accessed through the Internet. 1. Lack of technology funding
One-to-one computing- or allocating a school computer for each
Technology Facilities: Hardware and Configurations for student, are gaining attention, and schools are faced with increased
Teaching costs due to replacing their aging computer systems.
MICROCOMPUTERS- (desktops, laptops, tablets, network servers) 2. Teacher and student accountability for quality and
Netbooks -or handheld computers that are like notebooks but with Progress
more limited features, have also become popular. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001
“Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), ”- that is, progress in meeting Type of Portfolio Development Materials
criteria that demonstrate they are effective schools. 1. Ready-made portfolio software packages
3. Debate over best practices with technologies 2. Multimedia authoring software
4. Reliance on distance education 3. Relational databases
4. Free websites with templates
Cultural and Equity Issues 5. Video editors
1. The Digital Divide. A phrase coined by Lloyd Morrisett
(Hoffman & Novak, 1998), former president of the Markle Adobe’s Creative Suite and Fireworks- are popular web-page
Foundation. development packages.
Digital Divide- originally referred to a discrepancy in access to
technology resources among socioeconomic groups. Electronic Portfolios: How to Develop Them
2. Racial and gender equity 1. DETERMINE PORTFOLIO REQUIREMENTS
3. Students with special needs 2. CREATE THE STRUCTURE
3. ADD AND LINK COMPONENTS
Legal and Ethical Issues 4. MONITOR THE COLLECTION; RECEIVE PERIODIC
1. Hacking FEEDBACK
Hackers- When people use online systems to access the personal 5. REFLECT ON PRODUCTS; REVISE AS NEEDED
data of students in order to accomplish identity theft and commit other
malicious acts. What Does Research on Technology in Education Tell Us?
Firewalls- software that blocks unauthorized access to classroom 1. Limitations of past research
computers, and to spend larger portions of technology funds each Meta-analysis- which is a statistical method designed by Glass
year on preventing and cleaning up after illegal activities. (1976) to summarize results across studies and measure the size
2. Safety issues of the effect a “treatment,”
3. The new plagiarism and academic dishonesty 2. The beginning of one-to-one initiatives
Cybercheating or online cheating- Greater online access to full-text Lap-top- is, a small portable personal computer, or other mobile
documents on the Internet has resulted in increased incidents of computing device to every student in a given grade level or school
students using materials they find online as their own. and measure the impact on achievement, dropout rate, attendance,
4. Illegal downloads/software piracy and other factors.
Software Piracy- An increasing number of sites offer ways to 3. Research results from one-to-one initiatives
download copies of software or other media without paying for them.
A Technology-Use Rationale Based on Problem Solving
NETS for Teachers, Students, and Administrators Problem 1: How to motivate and engage students?
» Gaining their attention
Top 10 Issues Shaping Today’s Technology Uses in Education » Supporting manual operations during high-level learning
1. Accountability and the standards movement » Illustrating real-world relevance through highly visual
2. Funding for educational technology Presentations
3. The Digital Divide » Engaging students through production work
4. Fears about technology misuses » Connecting students with audiences for their Writing
5. The role of distance education » Engaging learners through real-world situations and
6. Privacy and safety Collaborations
7. Malware, viruses, spam, and hacking » Providing support for working cooperatively
8. Online plagiarism Problem 2: How to support students’ learning needs?
9. Racial and gender equity » Supporting effective skill practice
10. 21st century technology skills » Helping students visualize underlying concepts in
unfamiliar or abstract topics
The ICT Competency Framework for Teachers » Letting students study systems in unique ways
Information and communication technology (ICT) framework- » Giving access to unique information sources and Populations
which focuses on skills that teachers require to bring about three » Supplying self-paced learning for accelerated students
different levels of human capacity development: technology literacy, » Turning disabilities into capabilities
knowledge deepening, and knowledge creation. » Saving time on production tasks
» Grading and tracking student work
» Technology literacy —Needed to “prepare learners, citizens, and » Providing faster access to information sources
a workforce that is capable of taking up new technologies so as to » Saving money on consumable materials
support social development and economic productivity.” Problem 3: How to prepare students for future learning?
» Knowledge deepening —Increases “the ability of students, » Technological literacy
citizens, and the workforce to add value to society and the economy » Information literacy
by applying the knowledge of school subjects to solve complex, high » Visual literacy
priority problems encountered in real world situations of work, society,
and life.” Trends in Hardware and Software Development
» Knowledge creation —Intended “to increase productivity by Artificial intelligence (AI) -refers to computer programs that try to
creating students, citizens, and a workforce that is continually emulate the decision-making capabilities of the human mind.
engaged in and benefits from knowledge creation and innovation and Trend #1: Ubiquitous mobile computing
life-long learning.” Trend #2: More sources of open content
Trend #3: Increased ebook presence
Demonstrating Technology Skills: Portfolio Options Trend #4: Augmented reality systems
Portfolio- a collection of their work products from courses they take, Augmented Reality- Coined by a Boeing researcher in 1990.
to demonstrate their achievement of required skills as they go through -Refers to a computer-generated environment in which a real-
the program. Life scene is overlaid with information that enhances our
Electronic portfolios - a collection of work in a website or multimedia understanding and uses of it.
product, as the assessment strategy of choice. Trend #5: Gesture-based computing
Adobe Acrobat Professional- to create electronic versions of Gesture-recognition systems- a camera or sensor reads body
pages. PDFs are essentially “pictures of pages” and are easy to store movements and communicates them to a computer, which
and share with others. processes the gestures as commands and uses them to control
devices or displays.
Trends in Educational Applications Systems approaches to instructional design were rooted in the
Trend #1: Flexible learning environments belief that learning was most efficient when it was supported by a
Trend #2: Adaptable assessment options carefully designed system of instruction.
Student Response System (SRS) or clickers- Shihadeh-Shald
(2010) and Kenwright (2009) report on uses of student response Gagné’s Events of Instruction Related to Mental Processes
systems (SRS). Involved in Learning
-support the kinds of continuous assessment students need in order 1. Gaining attention
to self-monitor their progress. 2. Informing the learner of the objective
Trend #3: Emphasis on communication and collaboration. 3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
Crowd-sourcing- a type of “outsourcing” in which many people are 4. Presenting the stimulus material
asked to give their input on solving a problem that has proven 5.Providing learning guidance
resistant to efforts of single individuals or organizations. 6. Eliciting the performance
Trend #4: Reliance on learning at a distance 7. Providing feedback about performance correctness
Trend #5: Increased educational options for students with disabilities 8. Assessing the performance
Bargerhuff, Cowan, Oliveira, Quek, and Fang (2010) describe 9. Enhancing retention and transfer
virtual reality (VR) uses for those with visual impairments.
Teaching Methods and Technology Integration Strategies
THEORY INTO PRACTICES That Reflect Objectivist Theories
1. Directed teaching methods
Directed instruction- where teachers transmit a pre-defined set of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) argue that direct instruction
information to students through teacher-organized activities. is more effective and efficient than minimally guided instruction
Objectivism- a belief system grounded primarily in behaviourist when learners do not have enough prior knowledge to be self-
learning theory and the information-processing branch of the guided.
cognitive learning theories. 2. Directed models of technology integration
Inquiry-based learning- in which learners generate their own
knowledge through experiences and teachers serve only as Social Activism Theory (Learning as Social Experience)
facilitators. - John Dewey
Constructivism- which evolved from other branches of thinking in Dewey deplored standardization and believed that curriculum
cognitive learning theory. should arise from students’ interests. He also believed that
curriculum topics should be integrated, rather than isolated, since
Theories Underlying Directed and Constructivist Teaching teaching isolated topics prevented learners from grasping the whole
Strategies of knowledge.
» Objectivists —Knowledge has a separate, real existence of its own -Dewey’s social activism theory was based on the belief that social
outside the human mind. Learning happens when this knowledge is consciousness was the ultimate aim of all education, and learning
transmitted to people and they store it in their minds. was useful only in the context of social experience.
» Constructivists —Humans construct all knowledge in their minds
by participating in certain experiences. Learning occurs when one Social Cognitive Theory(Social Influences on Learning)
constructs both mechanisms for learning and one’s own unique - Albert Bandura
version of the knowledge, colored by background, experiences, and Learning was “an information processing activity” that involved
aptitudes. “reciprocal interactions among behaviors, environmental variables,
and personal factors such as cognitions”
Behaviorist Theory Vicarious Learning- through observation
Theories Underlying Directed Technology Integration Strategies Enactive Learning- through action
Behaviorist Theory: B. F. Skinner (Learning as Stimulus Response Learning (acquiring new information or concepts) and
Chains) Performance (demonstrating what is learned);
» Learning is an activity that occurs inside the mind and can be Self-efficacy , or belief in their abilities to accomplish the actions
inferred only by observed behaviors. necessary to learn.
Classical conditioning- concepts of Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov, which viewed learning as involuntary physical responses to Scaffolding Theories (Learning as a Cognitive Building
outside stimuli (e.g., dogs salivate at the sight of a dog food can). Process)
Operant Conditioning- people can have voluntary mental control - Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
over their responses and that the consequences of their past actions -Russian philosopher and educational psychologist
can act as stimuli in shaping future behaviors. -Pedagogical Psychology
Contingencies of reinforcement- set up to shape desired -Zone of Proximal Development
responses: positive and negative reinforcement. » Learning is cognitive development shaped by individual
Programmed instruction- techniques for training and instruction in differences and the influence of culture.
which content is presented in discrete steps that the learner » Adults (experts) and children (novices) perceive the world
completes in a set sequence. differently. The difference between them is the Zone of Proximal
Mastery learning- concepts, an approach that gave students a Development.
sequence of objectives that defined mastery of a subject. » Adults support learning through scaffolding, or helping children
build on what they already know.
Information-Processing Theory: Atkinson and Shiffrin (The Mind Scaffolding- He felt that teachers could provide good instruction by
as Computer) finding out where each child was in his or her development and
» Learning is encoding information into human memory, similar to the building on the child’s experiences,
way a computer stores information.
Sensory Register- to receive information; Child Development Theory (Stages of Development)
Short Term or Working Memory (STM)- to hold it temporarily; - Jean Piaget
Long Term Memory (LTM)- to store information indefinitely. - “genetic epistemologist,”
» Learning is cognitive growth through neurological and social
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory: Robert Gagné (Providing Conditions maturation.
for Learning) » Children go through stages of cognitive development
» Learning is shaped by providing optimal instructional conditions. (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal
» Different kind of skills (e.g., concepts, rules, problem-solving) operations) by interacting with their environment.
require different learning conditions.
Sensorimotor Stage- (birth–2 years), in which children explore the Constructivist Model: • Higher level skills: All students must be
world around them through their senses and motor activity. able to think critically and creatively and solve problems.
Preoperational stage (2–7 years), in which they develop speech • Cooperative group skills: Help students learn to work with others
and symbolic activities (e.g., drawing objects, pretending, imagining), to solve problems.
numerical abilities (e.g., assigning numbers and counting). - Assessment Methods
Operational stage (7–11 years), they increase abstract reasoning, Directed Instructional Model: • Traditional assessments (e.g.,
can generalize from concrete experiences, and can do conservation multiple choice, short answer) with specific expected responses;
tasks. student products (e.g., essays) graded with checklists or rubrics.
Formal operations stage (12–15 years), they form and test Constructivist Model: • Nontraditional assessments (e.g., group
hypotheses, organize information, and reason scientifically; they can products such as web pages, multimedia projects) with varying
show results of abstract thinking with symbolic materials (e.g., writing, contents or portfolios; student products graded with self-report
drama). instruments, rubrics.
- Criticisms
Assimilation- learn by fitting the new experiences into the existing Directed Instructional Model: • Breaking topics into discrete skills
view of the world. and teaching them in isolation from each other is directed more at
Accommodation- changing their views of the world to incorporate basic skills than at higher level ones; students cannot apply skills
the new experiences. later (i.e., knowledge is inert).
Constructivist Model: • When students are allowed to
Discovery Learning (Instructional Support for Child demonstrate knowledge in varying ways, teachers cannot certify
Development) students’ individual skill levels, as required by today’s accountability
- Jerome Bruner standards.
» Learning is cognitive growth through interaction with the
environment. Technology Integration Strategies Based on Directed Teaching
» Children are more likely to understand and remember concepts that Models
they discover during their interaction with the environment. 1. To remedy identified weaknesses or skill deficits
» Teachers support discovery learning by providing opportunities for • At-risk students need individual instruction and practice.
exploring and manipulating objects and doing experiments. 2. To promote skill fluency/ automaticity
• Students need to be able to recall and apply lower level skills
Multiple Intelligences Theory (The Role of Intelligence in quickly, automatically.
Learning) 3. To support efficient, self-paced learning
- Howard Gardner • Students are motivated and able to learn on their own.
» Learning is shaped by innate intelligences: 4. To support self-paced review of concepts
•Linguistic—Uses language effectively, writes clearly and • Students need help studying for test.
persuasively. Automaticity- Students need rapid recall and performance of a
•Musical—Communicates by writing and playing music. wide range of skills throughout the curriculum, including simple
•Logical-mathematical— Reasons logically, recognizes patterns; math facts, grammar and usage rules, and spelling.
formulates and tests hypotheses; solves problems in math and
science. Technology Integration Strategies Based on Constructivist
•Spatial—Perceives the world visually, can recreate things after Models
seeing them. 1. To foster creative problem solving and metacognition
•Bodily-kinesthetic—Uses the body and tools skillfully. • Students need to be able to solve complex, novel problems as
•Intrapersonal—Is an introspective thinker; has heightened they occur.
metacognitive abilities. 2. To help build mental models and increase knowledge
•Interpersonal—Notices moods and changes in others, can identify transfer
motives in others’ behavior, relates well with others. • Students have trouble understanding complex and/or abstract
•Naturalist—Can discriminate among living things. concepts.
-According to Gardner’s theory, IQ tests (which tend to stress 3. To foster group cooperation skills
linguistic/logical-mathematical abilities) cannot judge all students’ • Students need to be able to work with others to solve problems
ability to learn, and traditional academic tasks may not reflect true and create products.
ability. 4. To allow for multiple and distributed intelligences
• Teachers want to allow students multiple ways to learn and to
Teaching Methods and Technology Integration Strategies That demonstrate achievement.
Reflect Constructivist Theories
Inert Knowledge -a term introduced by Whitehead in 1929 Technology Integration Strategies to Support Either Model
-mean skills that students learned but did not know how to transfer 1. To generate motivation to learn
later to problems that required them. 2. To optimize scarce personnel and material resources
Rubric- an instrument consisting of a set of elements that define 3. To remove logistical hurdles to learning
important aspects of a given performance or product and ratings that 4. To develop information literacy/visual literacy skills
describe levels of quality for each element.
A TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION PLANNING (TIP) MODEL FOR
A Comparison of Directed and Constructivist Models and the TEACHERS
Problems They Address Technology Integration Planning (TIP) Model- is a problem-
- Teaching/Learning Methods solving model that is useful when teachers are faced with selecting
Directed Instructional Model: • Stress individualized work. best strategies and materials, and they decide that they would like
• Have specifi c skill-based instructional goals and objectives; same to try digital technologies to meet their needs.
for all students.
Constructivist Model: • Stress group-based, coopreative work. The Technology Integration Planning Model
• Have global goals such as problem solving and critical thinking: PHASE 1: Analysis of Learning and Teaching Needs
sometimes differ for each student. Step 1: Determine relative advantage
- Instructional Needs and Problems Targeted Step 2: Assess Tech-PACK
Directed Instructional Model: • Accountability: All students must PHASE 2: Planning for Integration
meet required education standards to be considered educated. Step 3: Decide on objectives, assessments
• Individualization: Help meet individual needs of students working at Step 4: Design integration strategies
many levels. Step 5: Prepare instructional environment
PHASE 3: Post-instruction analysis and Revisions 4. Match technology to curriculum needs.
Step 6: Analyze results 5. Keep current and build in flexibility.
Step 7: Make revisions
Standards and Curriculum Support
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Tech-PACK) -NETS for Students, 21st Century Student Outcomes, and the ICT
-the combination of technological pedagogical content knowledge Framework identify higher order thinking skills and digital
required to integrate technology most effectively into instruction. citizenship as critical for life-long learning and productivity in our
emerging global society.
Shulman (1986) stressed the importance of how these components Required Policies
work together, rather than separately. 1. Internet use policies.
Hughes (2000) extended Shulman’s concept by adding technology 2. Legal/ethical use polices.
as another component of knowledge needed by teachers. 3. Policies to ensure equity.
4. Financial assistance, incentives, and accountability policies.
A Brief History of TPACK Access to Hardware, Software, and Other Resources
1986 -Shulman says pedagogy and content knowledge (PCK) must 1. Finding funding.
be considered together 2. Purchasing hardware and software.
2000 -Hughes adds technology to form TPCK (technological
pedagogical content knowledge) Skilled Personnel
2006 -Mishra and Koehler articulate the interdependence of content, 1. Hands-on integration emphasis.
pedagogy, and technology knowledge 2. Setting up and maintaining physical facilities.
2007 -TPCK becomes TPACK as Thompson and Mishra say it better 3. Training over time.
represents the interdependence of the three knowledge domains and “one-shot”- inservice approach is ineffective for helping teachers
represents the “Total PACKage” of teacher knowledge required for develop methods to use computers as instructional tools.
technology integration 4. Modeling, mentoring, and coaching.
2012 -TPACK becomes Tech-PACK as Roblyer and Doering 5. Post-training access.
emphasize the critical contribution of technology to teaching Technical Assistance
-Each teacher needs training in simple troubleshooting procedures,
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that has such as what to do if a computer says a disc is “unreadable.”
important implications for technology use in the classroom. UDL Teachers should not be expected to address more complicated
means, among other things, proactively valuing academic diversity in diagnostic and maintenance problems, however.
ways that enhance access, engagement, and learning outcomes. Appropriate Teaching and Assessment Approaches
-Models of technology integration range from relatively passive
Phase 1: Analysis of Learning and Teaching Needs uses (e.g., teachers reviewing a topic with a PowerPoint
-This phase in integrating technology requires analyzing classroom presentation) to more interactive, hands-on uses (e.g., students
problems and how technology-based strategies could address them. using word processing for student reports or calculators for
Step 1: Determining relative advantage. supporting mathematics problem solving.
Step 2: Tech-PACK assessment. Engaged Community
Phase 2: Planning for Integration -Technology has the most impact on achieving educational goals
-This phase in integrating technology requires making decisions when schools involve the entire local community.
about outcomes and how they will be assessed, and about how to
arrange and carry out integration strategies. INSTRCUTIONAL SOFTWARE FOR 21ST CENTURY TEACHING
Step 3: Decide on objectives and assessments.
Introduction to Instructional Software
Likert Scale- is a series of statements that students use to indicate -Educators and developers alike began to pursue this idea in the
their degree of agreement or disagreement. 1960s and 1970s.
Semantic differential- students respond to a question by checking a
line between each of several sets of bipolar adjectives to indicate their William Norris (1977)
level of feeling about the topic of the question. -developed Control Data’s PLATO teaching system.
Step 4: Design integration strategies. -believed that computer- based education was the only logical
Step 5: Prepare the instructional environment. alternative to education’s “outdated, labor-intensive ways”

Phase 3: Post-Instruction Analysis and Revisions Instructional Software

-This section will give a detailed description of Phase 3 steps and an - is a general term for computer programs designed specifically to
explanation of why each is necessary. deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic.
Step 6. Analyze results. Software tools
Step 7. Make revisions. -serve many purposes other than teaching; instructional software
packages are developed for the sole purpose of supporting
Essential Conditions for Effective Technology Integration instruction and/or learning.
- Standards and Curriculum Support Hybrid Software
- Shared Vision for technology integration -merge the capabilities and instructional and tool software
- Required Policies Logo
- Access to Resources -One of the most widely known of the programming languages used
- Skilled Personnel for instruction.
- Technical Assistance - introduces young children to problem solving through
- Appropriate teaching and assessment programming and allows them to explore concepts in content areas
- Engaged Community such as mathematics, science, and language arts. (Galas, 1998;
The National Center for Technology Planning- offers guidelines for Gonsalves & Lopez, 1998; Weinstein, 1999).
planning strategies and examples of school and district plans. Seymour Paper (1980)- Logo “widely used throughout the world as
an introductory programming language and mathematical learning
1. Coordinate school and district planning, and involve teachers and environment for students in elementary and secondary schools”
other personnel at all levels
2. Budget yearly amounts for technology purchases, and plan for Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) or courseware
sustainability. - when instructional software was used primarily to tutor students.
3. Emphasize teacher training.
The term is still in common use, but some kinds of instructional Selecting Good Drill-and-Practice Software
software are designed with more constructivist purposes in mind; » Control over the presentation rate
they support, rather than deliver, instruction. Therefore, teachers also » Answer judging
may hear instructional software referred to as computer- based » Appropriate feedback for correct and incorrect answers
instruction (CBI), computer-based learning (CBL), or computer-
assisted learning (CAL), or in more generic terms, such as software Benefits of Drill and Practice
learning tools. -Indeed, its effects were so well documented in the early days of
computer-based learning that it is not a topic of much current
FIVE INSTRUCTIONAL SOFTWARE FUNCTIONS research. It became clear that drill activities can allow the effective
1. Drill and Practice- Allows learners to work problems or answer rehearsal students need to transfer newly learned information into
questions and get feedback on correctness. long-term memory (Merrill & Salisbury, 1984; Salisbury, 1990).
2. Tutorial- Acts like a human tutor by providing all the information » Immediate feedback —When students practice skills on paper,
and instructional activities a learner needs to master a topic: they frequently do not know until much later whether or not they did
information summaries, explanation, practice routines, feedback, and their work correctly. To quote a common saying, “Practice does not
assessment. make perfect; practice makes permanent.”
3. Simulation- Models real or imaginary systems to show how those » Motivation —Many students refuse to do the practice they need
systems or similar ones work or to demonstrate underlying concepts. on paper, either because they have failed so much that the whole
4. Instructional Game- Increases motivation by adding game rules idea is abhorrent, they have poor handwriting skills, or they simply
to drills or simulations. dislike writing.
5. Problem Solving- (a) Teaches directly (through explanation » Saving teacher time —Since teachers do not have to present or
and/or practice) the steps involved in solving problems or (b) helps grade drill and practice, students can practice on their own while the
learners acquire problem- solving skills by giving them opportunities teacher addresses other student needs.
to solve problems.
Limitations and Problems Related to Drill and Practice
Ten Integration strategies for Instructional Software » Perceived misuses —Some authors have criticized teachers for
1. Simulation software presenting drills for overly long periods or for teaching functions that
2. Thinkport’s free online Resources drills are ill suited to accomplish.
3. Geometer’s Sketchpad » Criticism by constructivists- Critics claim that introducing
4. Physics Classroom isolated skills and directing students to practice them contradicts
5. Stock market software the trend toward restructured curriculum in which students learn and
6. BrainPop use skills in an integrated way within the context of their own
7. Congress for Kids projects that specifically require the skills.
8. Practice for high-stakes tests
9. Foreign language software Using Drill and Practice in Teaching
10. Tutorial Instructional Sequences Drill-and-practice software can serve several classroom needs.
This section describes integration strategies to meet each of these
Current Instructional Software Configurations needs and offers guidelines and practical tips on how to integrate
» Online access and multi-platform use —Teachers used to these strategies in the classroom.
purchase software in the form of off-the-shelf media. 1. Classroom integration strategies for drill functions.
» Multimedia and game formats —Software design and Characteristics of Drill and Practice
development have evolved from offering simple, one- dimensional » Presents items for students to answer
products to providing multimedia experiences and environments to » Gives feedback on correctness
engage students. » Sometimes gives explanation of why answers are incorrect
» Renewed emphasis on directed strategies —The recent
emphasis on educational accountability and meeting standards (e.g., » Supplement or replace worksheets and homework exercises
the No Child Left Behind Act [NCLB]) has breathed new life into » Prepare for tests
strategies that were once considered passé. 2. Guidelines for using drill and practice.
» Set time limits —Teachers should limit the time devoted to drill
DRILL-AND-PRACTICE TEACHING FUNCTIONS assignments to 10 to 15 minutes per day.
Drill-and-practice software- functions provide exercises in which » Assign individually
students work example items, usually one at a time, and receive » Use learning stations
feedback on their correctness. Programs vary considerably in the kind
of feedback they provide in response to student input. TUTORIAL TEACHING FUNCTIONS
Tutorial software- is an entire instructional sequence on a topic,
Types of Drill and Practices activities: similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction. This instruction usually
» Flash card activity —This is the most basic drill- and-practice is expected to be a self-contained instructional unit rather than a
function, arising from the popularity of real-world flash cards. A supplement to other instruction.
student sees a set number of questions or problems, presented one Tutorials often are categorized as linear or branching tutorials
at a time. (Alessi & Trollip, 2001), as described below:
» Chart fill-in activities —In this kind of practice, students are asked » Linear tutorial —A simple, linear tutorial gives the same
to complete a whole set of answers (e.g., multiplication facts) by filling instructional sequence of explanation, practice, and feedback to all
in a chart, usually on a timed basis to test for fluency. Then they learners regardless of differences in their performance.
receive feedback on all the answers at once. » Branching tutorial —A more sophisticated, branching tutorial
» Branching drill —This is a more sophisticated form of drill and directs learners along alternate paths depending on how they
practice. In branching drills, the software moves students on to respond to questions and whether they show mastery of certain
advanced questions after they get a number of questions correct at parts of the material.
some predetermined mastery level; it may also send them back to
lower levels if they answer a certain number wrong. Selecting Good Tutorial Software
» Extensive feedback activities —In these drills, students get more » Extensive interactivity
than just correct/incorrect feedback. Some programs give detailed » Thorough user control
feedback on why the student got a problem wrong. This feedback is » Appropriate pedagogy
sometimes so thorough that the software function is often mistaken » Adequate answer-judging and feedback capabilities
for a tutorial. » Appropriate graphics
» Adequate recordkeeping
Benefits of Tutorials -Compress time.
-Since a tutorial includes drill-and-practice activities, helpful features -Slow down processes.
include the same ones as for drills (immediate feedback to learners, -Get students involved.
motivation, and time savings) plus the additional benefit of offering a -Make experimentation safe.
self-contained, self-paced unit of instruction. Many successful uses of -Make the impossible possible.
tutorials have been documented over the years. -Save money and other resources.
Intelligent Tutoring System-a sophisticated kind of branching -Allow repetition with variations.
tutorial software that adapts the sequence of instruction to the needs -Allow observation of complex processes.
of each learner.
-Salden et al. say that these kinds of systems personalize instruction Limitations and Problems Related to Simulations
and make the learning of complex tasks much more efficient by - Criticism of virtual lab software.
reducing cognitive load. American Chemical Society (2008) and the National Science
Teachers Association (Davis, 2009; NSTA, 2007) have come out
Limitations and Problems Related to Tutorials strongly against replacing hands-on, in-class labs with virtual ones.
» Criticism by constructivists - Accuracy of models.
» Lack of good products Prensky (2007) acknowledges that simulations are in limited use in
» Reflect only one instructional approach schools and feels this is because there is a shortage of products
that are of high enough quality to be useful for school learning.
Using Tutorials in Teaching - Misuse of simulations.
Classroom integration strategies for tutorial functions.
Self-instructional tutorials should in no way threaten teachers, since Simulations should be considered in the following situations:
few conceivable situations make a computer preferable to an expert » In place of or as supplements to lab experiments
teacher. » In place of or as supplements to role-playing
Several classroom situations: » In place of or as supplements to field trips
» Self-paced reviews of instruction » Introducing and/or clarifying a new topic
» Alternative learning strategies » Fostering exploration and process learning
» Instruction when teachers are unavailable » Encouraging cooperation and group work
Guidelines for using tutorials.
INSTRUCTIONAL GAME TEACHING FUNCTIONS
SIMULATION TEACHING FUNCTIONS -Technology-based games bridge the worlds of gaming,
Simulation- is a computerized model of a real or imagined system entertainment, and education in an attempt to deliver fun and
that is designed to teach how the system works. Unlike tutorial and effective learning.
drill-and-practice activities, in which the teaching structure is built into
the package, learners using simulations usually must choose tasks to Instructional Games
do and the order in which to do them. -add game-like rules and/or competition to learning activities.

Alessi and Trollip (2002) identify two main types of simulation: Selecting Good Instructional Games
1. Physical simulations. These simulations allow users to Cheng, Hwang, Lee, and Chang (2009) surveyed educators to
manipulate things or processes represented on the screen. create a checklist of criteria that determine the educational value of
2. Iterative simulations. These simulations speed up or slow down a game.
processes that usually happen either so slowly or so quickly that
students cannot see the events unfold. Seven Categories they define included:
-Alessi and Trollip (2001) refer to this type as “iterative” because 1. mentality challenge
students can run it over and over again with different values, 2.emotional fulfilment
observing the results each time. 3. knowledge enhancement,
4. thinking skill development
Biological simulations, such as those on genetics, are popular 5. interpersonal skills
since they help students experiment with natural processes. 6. spatial ability development
Genetics simulations let students pair animals with given 7. bodily coordination.
characteristics and see the resulting offspring.
Appealing formats and activities.
Simulations That Teach How to Do Something Instructional value.
1. Procedural simulations. These activities teach the appropriate Physical dexterity is reasonable.
sequences of steps to perform certain procedures. Social, societal, and cultural considerations.
2. Situational simulations. These programs give students
hypothetical problem situations and ask them to react. Some Benefits of Instructional Games
simulations allow for various successful strategies, such as letting A classroom without elements of games and fun would be a dry,
students play the stock market or operate businesses. barren landscape for students to traverse. In an early review of the
effectiveness of games for educational purposes, Randel et al.
Benefits of Simulations (1992) found “[the fact] that games are more interesting than
-However, simulations are currently available in other content areas, traditional instruction is both a basis for using them as well as a
and many are now able to be accessed online. Some updated consistent finding”
products combine the control, safety, and interactive features of Characteristics
computer simulations with the visual impact of pictures of real-life » Gives opportunities for content skill practice or problem solving in
devices and processes. a fun, entertaining environment
-Lalley et al. (2010) compared the effectiveness of simulated and » Has game rules
physical frog dissections on learning, retention, and student » Challenges students to compete and win
satisfaction and found no significant differences on any measure.
-Wieman and Perkins (2005) report research that indicates Limitations and Problems Related to Instructional Games
interactive simulations in physics are frequently much more effective 1. Learning versus having fun.
than seeing actual demonstrations. 2. Confusion of game rules and real-life rules.
3. Inefficient learning.
One or more of the following instructional benefits (Alessi & 4. Classroom barriers.
Trollip, 2001):
Using Instructional Games in Teaching • solving one or more kinds of content-area problems (e.g., building
Classroom applications for instructional games. algebra equations);
» In place of worksheets and exercises • using a scientific approach to problem solving (i.e., identifying the
» To teach cooperative group working skills problem, posing hypotheses, planning a systematic approach); and
» As a reward • identifying the components of problem solving, such as following
Guidelines for using instructional games. a sequence of steps or recalling facts.
» Use sparingly. 2. Decide on an activity or a series of activities that will help teach
» Involve all students. the desired skills.
» Emphasize the content-area skills first. 3. Examine software to locate materials that closely match the
desired abilities, remembering not to judge capabilities on the basis
PROBLEM-SOLVING TEACHING FUNCTIONS of vendor claims alone.
Problem-solving Software 4. Determine where the software fits into the teaching sequence (for
-simulations and instructional games are often used to help teach example, to introduce the skill and gain attention, as a practice
problem-solving skills. activity after demonstrating problem solving, or both).
-software functions may focus on fostering component skills in or 5. Demonstrate the software and the steps to follow in solving
approaches to general problem-solving ability, or provide problems.
opportunities to practice solving various kinds of content-area 6. Build in transfer activities and make students aware of the skills
problems. they are using in the software.

According to Mayes (1992), problem solving is cognitive processing The following seven steps can help you integrate problem-
directed at achieving a goal when the solution is not obvious. solving software according to constructivist models:
1. Allow students sufficient time to explore and interact with the
Three of its most important components: recognition of a goal (an software, but provide some structure in the form of directions, goals,
opportunity for solving a problem), a process (a sequence of physical a work schedule, and organized times for sharing and discussing
activities or operations), and mental activity (cognitive operations to results.
pursue a solution). 2. Vary the amount of direction and assistance provided, depending
on each student’s needs.
Although there are many opinions about the proper role of 3. Promote a reflective learning environment; let students talk about
instructional software in fostering these abilities, there seem to the methods they use.
be two main approaches: 4. Stress thinking processes rather than correct answers.
» Content-area problem-solving skills —Some problem-solving 5. Point out the relationship between software activities and other
software focuses on teaching content-area skills, primarily in kinds of problem solving.
mathematics and science. 6. Let students work together in pairs or small groups.
Geometric Supposer- encourages students to learn strategies for 7. For assessments, use alternatives to traditional paper- and-
solving geometry problems by drawing and manipulating geometric pencil tests.
figures.
Content-free problem-solving skills —Some educators feel that INTEGRATED LEARNING SYSTEMS
general problem-solving ability can be taught directly by specific Integrated learning systems (ILSs) - are networked or on-
instruction and practice in its component strategies and subskills line systems that provide both computer-based instruction and track
(e.g., recalling facts, breaking a problem into a sequence of steps, or and report on student progress.
predicting outcomes). -The most powerful—and the most expensive—of available
instructional software products.
Benefits of Problem-Solving Software -introduced on early 1970’s
1. Promotes visualization in mathematics problem solving.
(Geometric Sketchpad) ILS Software Components
2. Improved interest and motivation. Instructional activities available on an ILS range from simple drill
3. Prevents inert knowledge. and practice to extensive tutorials. Many ILSs are moving toward
complete tutorial systems intended to replace teachers in delivering
Limitations and Problems Related to Problem-Solving Software entire instructional sequences.
Problem-solving software packages are among the most popular of
all software functions; however, the following issues are still of ILS Management System Components
concern to educators: A typical ILS gives teachers progress reports across groups of
1. Names versus skills. Software packages use many terms to students, as well as the following kinds of information on
describe problem solving, and their exact meanings are not always individual performance:
clear. » Lessons and tests completed
2. Software claims versus effectiveness. » Questions missed on each lesson by numbers and percentages
3. Possible negative effects of directed instruction. Some » Numbers of correct and incorrect tries
researchers believe that direct attempts to teach problem solving » Time spent on each lesson and test
strategies can actually be counterproductive for some students. » Pre-test and post-test data.
4. Transfer. Although some educators feel that general problem-
solving skills, such as inference and pattern recognition, will transfer Benefits of ILSs
to content-area skills, scant evidence supports this view. In the 1970s
and 1980s. ILSs have become popular in school districts for their “one- stop
shopping” approach to buying software, as well as their ability to
Using Problem-Solving Software in Teaching provide achievement information by student, teacher, class, or
Classroom integration strategies for problem-solving software. school.
» To teach component skills in problem-solving strategies
» To provide support in solving problems Two developments related to school and teacher
» To encourage group problem solving accountability have made these products especially
appealing:
The following six steps can help you integrate problem- 1. District- and state-adopted academic standards.
solving software for directed teaching:
1. Identify problem-solving skills or general capabilities to build or 2. Accountability requirements of the No Child Left Behind
foster skills in: (NCLB) Act.
The NCLB Act stipulated that schools who fail to meet Adequate » Software suites and integrated packages —Because it is
Yearly Progress (AYP) for 3 years in a row must use a portion of their usually cheaper to buy several tools as a package rather than
Title I funds for out-of-school tutoring, which the NCLB Act refers to separately, tool functions are increasingly used as parts of software
as Supplemental Educational Services. ILS materials are ideal for suites or integrated packages .
providing these services. - Integrated packages , which combine several functions such as
word processing, spreadsheet, database, and graphics working
Limitations and Problems Related to ILSs under one program, and software suites or separate programs
- The cost of ILSs. that companies place in the same package.
- Research on ILS impact.
- Concerns about the role of ILSs. USING WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE IN TEACHING AND
Using ILSs in Teaching LEARNING
Directed applications for ILSs. Word processing programs -allow people to produce typed
» For remediation documents on a computer screen.
» As a mainstream delivery system
» Clicker Writer- A word processor that lets students click on
Constructivist applications for ILSs. An ILS can also combine letters, words, or short phrases to send into the word processor, so
several kinds of technology resources to support constructivist they can write sentences without using the keyboard.
learning approaches. This kind of ILS can provide a rich environment » Co:Writer - A word pre diction program that helps students who
that students can use to construct their own knowledge. have illegible handwriting, poor phonetic spelling, a physical
disability that makes typing diffi cult, or diffi culty translating
TECHNOLOGY TOOLS FOR 21ST CENTURY TEACHING thoughts into writing.
Overview of Uses for the “Basic Three” Software Tools » Picture It - Allows teachers to create picture-assisted reading
Database software - a program that allows information to be materials to help struggling readers and writers.
collected and organized to allow easy retrieval through keyword » Scholastic Keys- Gives elementary students an early
searching, used to be one of the basic programs, but, though still used introduction to using Microsoft Office by providing a kid-friendly
in education and elsewhere, it is not typically sold as part of the basic interface for Word, Excel, and PowerPoint.
suite anymore.
These three software products are often referred to as the “basic The Impact of Word Processing in Education
productivity tools,” because they were among the first such tools to Word Processing- Model Free
be designed to save time on clerical types of tasks. » Saves time
» Enhances document appearance
SOFTWARE TOOLS » Allows sharing of documents
1. Word Processing » Allows collaboration on documents
Example: Microsoft Word
- Creates documents consisting of pages with text and graphics. 10 Integration strategies for the Basic Three Software tools
2. Spreadsheet 1. Sweet hypothesis testing
Example: Microsoft Excel 2. Paragraph coherence
-Puts numerical information in row-column format; allows quick 3. Process writing
calculations and recalculations. 4. Colorful writing
3. Presentation 5. Elections concepts
Example: Microsoft PowerPoint 6. Pizza problem solving
-Displays text and graphics (with or without audio) in a slide show. 7. Teach-each-other presentations
8. Online surveys
Presentation software- programs that allow display of information 9. Political cartoons
organized as a set of slides, helps them communicate complex 10. Book reports
information more quickly. Issues in using word processing. Educators seem to agree that
Spreadsheets- are programs that allow storage of data by row– although word processing is a valuable application, its use in
column positions, and are used most often for demonstrations in education can be controversial:
mathematics, science, and business education areas. » Questions about what age students should start word processing
» Necessity to teach keyboarding skills
Recent Developments in Software Tools » Effects of word processing on handwriting
» Web-based collaboration tools —There has been a surge of » Impact of word processing on assessment
software tools that are now available via the Internet, and many are » Problems with inadvertent errors —
free of charge. Link (2009) warns that the auto correction feature built into most
Google Docs - for instance, is a tool that provides users access to word processors can replace typed words with ones the software
online programs for word processing, spreadsheets, and selects as more correct, leading to typos that interfere with intended
presentations. meaning.
» Open-source software —computer software whose source code
is made available in the public domain and that permits users to use, Spreadsheet products are sometimes also called worksheets.
change, and improve the software. Each row–column position is called a cell and may contain
» Mobile tools —All of the basic software tools are now available on numerical values, words or character data, and formulas or
tablets and handheld devices. calculation commands.
» Web-enabled features —All of the basic software tools now allow
insertion of “live” web page links in documents, and most allow Tips on Teaching Students How to Do Word Processing
documents to be saved in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) or Step 1—Prepare for teaching.
other web page formats. Step 2—Demonstrate the basics.
» Better file-exchange compatibility —In the early days of software Step 3—Assign individual practice.
tools, programs were often incompatible. Step 4—Demonstrate formatting features.
Files- products created in one program, could not be opened in Step 5—Assign more individual practice.
another program. Step 6—Demonstrate procedures with new files.
Computer platforms or types of computer operating systems Step 7—Assign more individual practice.
(e.g., Macintosh vs Windows) and tool programs.