0bjective assessinents

33. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE THINKING

Inductive reasoning is a logical process based on experiences, observations, and facts to

evaluate asituation and make a general assumption like a theory.
3.8 Human Values and Ethics

Deductive reasoning or top-down reasoning is based on using two logical

Generally, accepted as fact, to come to a logicalconclusion. assumptions.
3.3.1. INDUCTIVE THINKING ORREASONING
Inductive reasoning is the act of using specific scenarios and making generalizgt
conclusions from them. Also referred to as "cause-and-effect reasoning," inductive
can be thought of as a "bottom up" approach. reasoning
Gather Data Look for Patterns Develop Theory
Specific Ilevel of focus Analysis General level of focus

Fig. 3.1.
Cogent and Un-cogent Arguments
Strong arguments are ones where if the premise is true then the conclusion is very likely
to be true.
Conversely, weak inductive arguments are such that they may be false even if the
premises they are based upon are true.
Inductive Argument

Strong Weak

Premises Premises
True False

Cogent Uncogent
Argument Argument
Fig. 3.2.
If the argument is strong and the premises it is based upon are true, then it is said to be a
cogent argument.
f the argument is weak or the premises it flows from are false or unproven, then the
argument is said to be un-cogent.
For example, here is an example of a strong argument.
1 There are 20 cups of ice cream in the freezer.
2 18 of them are vanilla flavoured.
3. Therefore, all cups of ice cream are vanilla.
If in the previous argument premise was that 2 of the cups are vanilla, then the conclusion
that all cups are vanilla would be based upon a weak argument. In either case, all premises
are true and the conclusion may be incorrect, but the strength of the argument varies.
 |3.9

TYYPESOFINDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING

131.
lalGeneralization
the
generalization proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about
A
Aypulation.
(1.) A sample S from population P is chose. Qpercentage of the sample S
Forexample, Qpercentage ofthe population Phas attribute A.
A,
atribute .(2.) Therefore,
as
h) StatisticalSyllogisms
a generalization to a conclusion about an individual.
Astatistical syllog1sm proceeds from
proportion Q of population P has attribute A. (2.) An individual Xis
Eor example, (1.) A probability which corresponds to Q that X has
an
.member of P. (3.) Therefore, there is a
atributeA.

APPROACHES TO INDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING

132, integrates observations with
logical thinking process that
Inductive reasoning is a Employing the use of inductive reasoning
a conclusion.
exoeriential information to draw general conclusions on knowledge
from past
then form
every time look at a set of data and
experiences. a topic.
is usually used when there is a lack of existing literature on
Inductive research the concept.
theory that can be tested on
This is because there is no existing following three stages:
be categorized into the
The inductive training approach can
1. Observation.
2. Observe a pattern.
3. Develop a theory. example:
understand this approach better, let's take a look at the following
l0
Observe a Pattern Develop a Theory
Observation
low-cost editing apps
Ihe low-cost editing All observed low-cost|Al! glitches.
App A and B, both editing apps experience experience app
PPS,
experience app glitches. app glitches.
LIMITATIONS OF INDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING
. STRENGTHS AND
inductive reasoning by taking a look at its strengths and weaknesses:
Lers evaluate
0] Strengths of Inductive Reasoning
) Range of
probabilities advantages of inductive reasoning is that it allows to work
most prominent lack of
wiithth a Tangee of probabilities, expanding perception and knowledge base despitethe
literature available.
3.10 Human
Values und
(ii) Encourages exploration EAhics
Inductive training begins with an observation and then moves on to
judgment made. exploration to test he
(b) Weaknesses of inductive Reasoning
(i) Limited scope
Adrawback of inductive reasoning is that inferences are made from specific
that may not have significance in the real world. situaions
3.3.4. DEDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING
Deductive reasoning is the act of making a generalized statement and
backingto dup wit,
specific scenarios or infornation. It can be thought of as a top down" approach
it
conclusions.
Example of deductive reasoning is the following formula:
If A= B and B =C, then A must equal C.

Theorize/Hypothesize Analyze Data Hypotheses Supported or Not

General level of focus Analysis Specific level of focus

Fig. 3.3.
Sound or Unsound arguments
With deductive reasoning, arguments may be valid or invalid, sound or unsound. If the
logic is correct, i.e., the conclusion flows from the premises, then the
arguments are valid.
However, valid arguments may be sound or unsound. If the premises used in the valid
argument are true, then the argumnent is sound otherwise it is unsound.
Deductive Argument

Valid Invalid

Premises
True
Premises
False

Sound
Argument Unsound
Argument
Fig. 3.4.
For example,
1. All men have ten fingers.
2. John is a man.
 3.11

Therefore.John has ten finyers.

premise "Al men have ten fingers." is
argumentIs logical and valid. However, the unsound
Ihis Some people are born with | fingers, Therefore, thís is an
moect because
Igument Note
that allinvalid arguments are also unsound.

OF DEDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING

J35.TYPES
detachment
ulLaw of a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (0)
single conditional statement is made, and
A
deduced fromthe statement and
the hypothesis. statement: (1.) If an
sthen
law of detachment in the form of an if-then obtuse angle.
Er example, using the angle. (2.) A=125". (3.)Therefore, A is an
obtuse
oule A90.,then A is an
Syllogism conclusion by
lb) The law of conditional statements and forms a
takes two conclusion ofanother.
The law of syllogism statement with the
combining the hypothesis of
one
(2.) If the car does not stop, there
not stop.
example, (1.) If the brakes fail, the car will will be an accident.
For brakes fail, there
accident. (3.) Therefore, If the statement with the conclusion
willbe an hypothesis of the first
by combining the
The final statement
of the second statement. REASONING
THINKING OR
INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE ways to arrive at a conclusion
3.3.6. opposite
deductive reasoning areessentially
Inductive and
reasoning is that while inductive
or proposition. inductive and deductive patterns and then arrives at a
difference between
Ihe main observation, supports it with supports it with
observation
an theory,
Teasoning begins with deductive reasoning begins with a
"pothesis or theory, confirmation. deductive reasoning relies on
and eventually arrives at a while
on patterns
and trends,
Inductive reasoning relies
DEDUCTIVE
facts and rules. INDUCTIVE
Theory
Observation

Poductions
Generalization

Experiment
Theory
flows
Fig. 3.5.
general, deductive reasoning
from specificto
Inductive reasoning follow a flow
Irom general to specific.
 liuman Values nd|
Ethic:
Ue imletive rensoin when nttempting to understnnd how somethiny
lbuerving pattems. works by
Deduetive reaoing, on the other hand, might be nore helpful when
etablishing relationships betweentwo or moro entities. defining, and
Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning
lnductive reasoning aimn to construct a Doductive ronsoning tries to test an
theory oxisting tlheory,
Inductive reasoning Imovos from Deductive rcasoning the other
Way
wpecific observations to broad around.
generalizations
lnductive reasoning is a bottom-up A top-down strategy is deductive
proach roasoning.
Examples of inductive thinking or reasoning
Detemining when should lcave for work based on traffic patterns
Rolling out a new accounting procoss bascd on the way users interact with the software
* Deciding on incentive plans bascd on an cmployce survey
Changing a meeting time or format based on participant cncrgy levels
Examples of deductive thinking or reasoning
3 Developing a marketing plan that will becffective for aspecific audicnce
Designing the floor plan and layout of ashop to maximize sales
Planning out abudget to get the highest output from your investments
Determining the mostefficient ways to communicate with clients
3.3.7. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTIVEVS. DEDUCTIVE THINKING
1. In lnductive easoning, the process followed is to move from a specitic
observation to a broader and goneralized conclusion.
In Doductive reasoning, the process begins with a general statement to prove l
with a logical conclusion.
2. Inductive reasoning is often called a
bottom-up approach" because you sar
from an observation, detect patterns, formulate a hypothesis, and reacin a
conclusion theory.
Deductive reasoning is often called a "top-down approach" because you start wi
a theory, narrow it down to a hypothesis, observe the hypothesis, and
rcach a logical affirmation. ultimatey
3. When it comes to inductive vs. deductive research, inductive
reasoning
qualitative analysis.
Scientific Vales
3.13
Deduetive reasoning, on the other hand, uses
4 In Inductive reasoning, the truth of the
quantitative analysis methods.
conclusion is true as well. premises does not mean that the
In Deductive
reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion has to be
In terms of inductive vs. true.
deductive research, inductive reasoning is used in
exploratory studies. Researchers use it to learn more
when there is a limited amount of about an area of interest
rescarch present on the topic.
Deductive reasoning is often used in
(est atheory or confirmatory studies. It helps rescarchers
hypothesis cither prove or disprove it.
to
33.8. USAGE OF INDUCTIVE VS.
DEDUCTIVE THINKING
When it comes to how use inductive and
deductive reasoning, the way to remember
is that inductive reasoning is fast
and casy to use, so use it daily in our casy
life.
However, deductive reasoning is difficult to use in daily
argument. life since need facts to prove the
(a) Usage of Inductive Reasoning
Use inductive reasoning for everyday
use.such as:
Determining when you should leave house for work based on the traffic.
Deciding on a special employce wellness program based on
(b) Usage of Deductive Reasoning
employee feedback.
Deductive reasoning is often used to solve a problem or make
Todetermine what caused customer
decisions.
dissatisfaction & use it to offer the right solution.
Designing new store layout that will attract more customers & increase sales.
a

3.3.9. COMPARISON CHART OF DEDUCTIVE AND

INDUCTIVE THINKING
Deductive Inductive
Introduction Deductive reasoning, also called | Inductive reasoning, also called
deductive logic, is the process of induction bottom-up logic,
reasoning from one or more general constructs evaluates general
statements regarding what is known propositions that are derived from
to reach logically certain specific examples.
conclusion.
Arguments Arguments in deductive logic are Arguments in inductive reasoning
either valid or invalid. Invalid are either strong or weak. Weak
arguments are always unsound. arguments are always uncogent.
Valid arguments are sound only if Strong arguments are cogent only if
the premises they are based upon are | the premises they are based upon are
true. true.
3.14 Human Values and Ethics

Validity of Conclusions can be proven to be Conclusions may be incorrect even

Conclusions valid if the premises are known to be if the argument is strong and the
true. premises are true.

3.3.10. APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE THINKING

Deduction can also be temporarily used to test an induction by applying it elsewhere.
* Agodscientific law is highly generalized like that in Inductive reasoning and may be
applied in many situations to explain other phenomena.
Deductive reasoning is used to deduce many experiments and prove a general rule.
(1) Bias
Inductive reasoning is also known as hypothesis construction because any conclusions
made are based on curent knowledge and predictions.
As with deductive arguments, biases can distort the proper application of inductive
most logical conclusion based on
argument. which prevents the reasoner from forming the
the chues.
(in Availability Heuristic
information that is
The availability heuristic causes the reasoner to depend primarily upon
readily available.
accessible in the world
People have a tendency to rely on intormation that is easily
around them. This can introduce bias in inductive reasoning.
(i) Confirmation bias
confirm, rather than to deny a
The confirmation bias is based on the natural tendency to
current hypothesis.
believed that the sun and planets orbit the earth.
For exanple, for several centuries it was
HYPOTHESIS