Hindawi

Mathematical Problems in Engineering

Volume 2023, Article ID 1029575, 15 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1029575

Research Article
Novel Nonlinear Control Method for First-Order Systems and Its
Implementation in a Temperature System

Ricardo Chapa ,1 Efrain Ibarra ,2 and Valentin Guzman 1

1
Universidad Tecnológica Gral. Mariano Escobedo, Gral Escobedo, Nuevo León 66050, Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Durango, Durango 34080, Mexico

Correspondence should be addressed to Efrain Ibarra; [email protected]

Received 31 March 2022; Revised 8 February 2023; Accepted 9 February 2023; Published 17 April 2023

Academic Editor: Jose Vicente Salcedo

Copyright © 2023 Ricardo Chapa et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
In this work, a novel nonlinear control theory design for frst-order systems is developed, contributing to the improvement of the
existing theory. Te theory will allow a design of the open loop and closed-loop controllers that ensure the tracking of any
reference, constant, or variant in time with a free initial condition where the Laplace transform was used to fnd all the analytical
solutions, avoiding the transfer function theory. Moreover, the closed-loop control will be the best option to speed up or slow
down the reference convergence rate in the desired fnite time. Ten, an algorithm indicating the steps for designing a closed-loop
controller and achieving proper tuning for a real-time application is shown. Finally, this manuscript presents the results and
discussions of the theory implemented in a prototype tank of a liquid temperature control system, where the efectiveness of the
applied temperature control can be seen.

1. Introduction a proper control design can be developed for its imple-

mentation [14–17].
Temperature control systems have been widely studied for Among the works that have focused on the design of the
their usefulness in industry and society. For example, in temperature controllers, in [18], genetic algorithms were
industry, temperature control systems can be found in in- investigated while designing and implementing fuzzy logic
dustrial furnaces, cooling towers, and chillers. However, the controllers for incubating eggs. In addition, a system was
domestic systems commonly used in our house are the developed that helps to determine the membership function
microwave oven, calefaction, air conditioning, etc., [1, 2]. with optimisation for the fastest processing of solving
Presently, there are diferent tools for making schematic problems. In [19], an adaptive network-based fuzzy in-
diagrams; one helpful software for this type of work is ISIS ference system was developed using a feld programmable
Proteus. One of its advantages is that many conventional gate array to improve the efectiveness and the results of
electronic or electrical components are included in its li- temperature changes in the etching process. A self-tuning
braries [3–5]. Together with the previous simulation soft- proportional-integral-derivative control was proposed in
ware, it is possible to work with Arduino; this platform has [20] to address the matter of controlling temperatures for
excellent compatibility with diferent implementation tools, drawn-texturing yarn machines. Finally, the temperature
and its microcontroller is programmed with the IDE control in [21, 22] was designed to avoid temperature cracks
Arduino application [6–13]. Te math model analysis of the in mass concrete structures, where the temperature drop
prototype is essential for fnding a relationship between the process can be optimised in time, and the temperature drop
input and output of the system. Tis project works with rate can be controlled to prevent excessive scale and tem-
a closed thermal system regarding resistance and capaci- perature drop rates.
tance. For simplicity, the analysis includes concentrated Te work in [23] considered the robust control problem
parameters representing the system. Considering this, for a class of nonlinear systems in the presence of unmodeled
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

dynamics. Ten, an auxiliary signal with the system state is control systems. Finally, in the article [31], the proposed
designed to capture the input-to-state stability. Moreover, method starts with a reformulation of the infnite-horizon
a novel and robust term is developed and introduced into the OST problem for linear discrete-time systems with external
actor-network during the learning process. An iterative disturbances, where an algebraic Riccati equation is derived
adaptive dynamic programming (ADP) algorithm within the for solving the OST problem, whose solution is uniquely
Hamiltonian-driven framework to solve the Hamil- determined under mild conditions. It has been proven that
ton–Jacobi–Bellman (HJB) equation for an infnite-horizon the obtained controller accommodates the disturbance and
optimal control problem in continuous time for nonlinear realises the output tracking with zero steady-state errors. In
systems was considered in [24]. Te novel function was the framework of reinforcement learning, a Q-learning al-
defned to capture the fundamental properties of the classical gorithm is devised to learn the suboptimal control policy by
Hamiltonian; the ADP developed considers the approxi- using measured data. Te present learning algorithm does
mation errors during the policy evaluation step. Te nu- not require that the disturbance be measurable, and it can be
merical results show the efcacy of the proposed framework. implemented completely model-free. Two examples of dc
Tis work was accomplished using a detailed research survey motor systems and the F-16 aircraft plant are provided to
about thermal systems; these are useful for obtaining corroborate the design methodology. Tese previous articles
a mathematical model of the prototype [25–28]. Te system work mainly in methodologies for control trajectory
plant has the following main elements: a tank with a heater tracking design, considering uncertainty, disturbances, and
and temperature sensor, a control board, and one display to real parameters of the plants. Furthermore, these works
see the desired temperature and process values. show the simulation results and even implementations to
To compare this work with some recent articles, in the verify the proposed methodologies. In this work, method-
work of [29], a new radial basis function network-based ologies for designing the controllers for constant and variant
model predictive control (RBFN-MPC) was presented to references (trajectories) are proposed, where simulation
control the steam temperature of a power plant boiler, and results and the implementation for the case of constant
the Laguerre polynomials were used to obtain local boiler reference verify the functionality of the controller.
models based on diferent load modes. Te recursive least Te organization of this article is as follows. In Section 2,
square (RLS) method was used as an observer of the the problem statement is described. In Section 3, the control
Laguerre polynomials coefcient. Ten, a new locally re- theory for frst-order systems is presented. Section 4 de-
current radial basis function neural network with a self- scribes the defnition of the generalised setting time, TS ,
organising mechanism was used to model these local which allows us to know how the solution signal x(t) ap-
transfer functions and to estimate the boiler´s future be- proaches the desired reference. In Section 5, the concept of
haviour. Te recurrent RBFN track system is dynamic online convergence gain, k, is described, which helps to design the
and updates the model. In this recurrent RBFN, the output closed-loop controllers that autonomously adjust the con-
of the hidden layer nodes at the last moment is used in vergence rate to the reference, and two simulation examples
modelling, so the boiler model behaves exactly like a real are demonstrated. In Section 6, we describe how the tem-
boiler. Simulation results considering real parameters in the perature control system implementation, the developed
model and uncertainty shows good behaviour using this control theory, is applied in a tank liquid heater prototype.
method. Te work discussed in this manuscript considers In Section 7, results and discussion of the work’s main
the real parameters of a plant that was implemented for results are provided, including the evidence of the tests and
constant temperature reference. In addition, the case of project functionality. Finally, Section 8 includes the con-
a variant temperature reference is shown via simulations. In clusion and future work, which describes the goals achieved,
future work, it will be possible to consider the case of the efectiveness, and the usefulness of the project.
temperature variant reference for implementation or similar
to that in the previous article considering uncertainty. 2. Problem Statement
Another article for comparison is the work designed in
[30]. Here, a hierarchical primitive-based learning frame- Among the existing control theories for linear systems, the
work (HLF) for trajectory tracking was proposed. Its main transfer function concept is commonly used in the design of
goal was to make the control systems (CSs) capable of the industrial controllers, since the location of the poles and
extending a current knowledge base of scenarios or expe- the defnition of the type of stability and solution are easily
riences consisting of diferent memorised tracking tasks for known. Terefore, for a linear diferential equation, zero
new tracking tasks that have not been seen before. While the initial conditions are always assumed for any relationship
knowledge base of tracking tasks is improved repetitively in the transfer function obtains; however, this does not always
a trial or iterative-based manner concerning an optimality apply to all systems. In addition, the output response is
criterion, it is required that for new tracking tasks, the usually analysed using an input control as the unit step,
unseen before trajectory is supposed to be optimally tracked mainly because it is easier to obtain an analytic solution and
without an opportunity for improvement by repetitions. Te the setting time when the solution is close to the reference at
proposed HLF framework endows the CLCSs with learning, 98% [32, 33].
memorisation, and generalisation features that are specifc to For proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers,
intelligent organisms. Tis may be considered as an ad- the Ziegler–Nichols methods are the most common tech-
vancement toward intelligent, generalisable, and adaptive niques implemented in industrial control systems, allowing
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 3

the heuristic tuning of the PID control [34]. Moreover, some _ + ax(t) � u(t); with x(0) � x0 ,
x(t) (1)
related works [35, 36] have used these methods to in-
corporate several extensions and improvements. Nonethe- where a is a constant parameter, x(t) is the variable to be
less, these methods are used for tracking waypoints, and the controlled, and u(t) is the variable of control. Now, suppose
time-varying reference cases are not considered. Terefore, that x(t) needs to track a reference r(t) that satisfes r(0) �
it is necessary to design new control methods that involve all r0 . Terefore, u(t) must be designed to achieve
kinds of references where the solutions can be obtained. x(t) ⟶ r(t) when t ⟶ ∞.
For this reason, it is necessary to establish a theory that To guarantee the tracking to a time-varying reference
contributes to the proximity to the desired reference and to r(t), it is necessary to introduce the following theorem.
be able to control the slowdown or acceleration of the output
response. In this work, the main purpose is to develop _ + ar(t),
Theorem 1. For the system (1) proposing u(t) � r(t)
a generalised nonlinear control theory that can be used in _
with known references signals r(t) and r(t), its solution is given
a frst-order diferential equation system for solving all the
by x(t) � r(t) + (x0 − r0 )exp (−at), and we have
trajectory tracking problems, both for constant and time-
x(t) ⟶ r(t) when t ⟶ ∞ only for a > 0.
variant references, and considering any initial condition.
Furthermore, a frst-order temperature system was chosen to
Proof. To prove the above-given theorem, u(t) is substituted
use the proposed control theory in a real-time imple-
into system (1), obtaining the following:
mentation mainly because it is possible to consider nonzero
initial temperature conditions. In addition, this system is
_ + ax(t) � r(t)
x(t) _ + ar(t). (2)
considered because it is more applicable to realistic situa-
tions for real-time applications. Note that, system (2) can also be represented as follows:

2.1. Main Contribution. Hence, the main contribution of _ − r(t))

(x(t) _ + a(x(t) − r(t)) � 0, (3)
this paper is to introduce a new control design method for
a frst-order diferential equation that guarantees the fol- where defning ex (t) � x(t) − r(t) and e_x (t) � x(t)
_ − r(t);
_
lowing points: in error dynamics terms, it is as follows:

(1) Te output signal response can follow constant or e_x (t) + aex (t) � 0; with ex (0) � x(0) − r(0) � ex0 . (4)
time-varying references
When applying the Laplace transform to the system (4),
(2) Te initial condition for the frst-order diferential we can obtain the following:
equation can be selected with freedom, implying that
the transfer function is no longer necessary since this Sex (S) − ex0 + aex (S) � 0
concept limits the realism of the physical systems by
considering that the initial conditions are ⇒ (S + a)ex (S) � ex0 (5)
always zero
ex0
(3) Analytical solutions are found for tracking constant ⇒ ex (S) � .
and time-varying references, which makes it possible S+a
to avoid using any numerical methods To obtain the solution, ex (t), we need to apply the in-
(4) A closed-loop control formula is obtained for verse Laplace transform to (5) as follows:
tracking constant or time-varying references
ex0
(5) Te designed controllers allow for acceleration or ex (t) � L− 1 􏼂ex (S)􏼃 � L− 1 􏼔 􏼕 � ex0 exp (−at), (6)
S+a
deceleration of the convergence rate to the desired
reference where (6) is the solution in terms of the errors. Now, re-
(6) Te controllers can be automatically tuned to allow membering that ex (t) � x(t) − r(t) and ex0 � x(0) − r(0) �
the desired reference to be reached with a small error x0 − r0 , we obtain the solution x(t), which is given as
and achieve it in fnite time, which can be proposed follows:
to our liking, where this fact is defned in our article x(t) � r(t) + x0 − r0 􏼁exp (−at). (7)
as the percentage convergence
Eventually, the goal is to use this developed control When applying to (7), the limit when t ⟶ ∞ is as
theory to design temperature control and verify its efec- follows:
tiveness in an approximate real-time implementation.
lim x(t) � lim r(t) + x0 − r0 􏼁 lim exp (−at). (8)
t⟶∞ t⟶∞ t⟶∞
3. Control Theory Design for a First-Order
Differential Equation As in hypothesis a > 0, it is implied that −a < 0, and thus,
exp (−at) goes to zero when t increases. Hence,
Consider the system given as follows: x(t) ⟶ r(t) when t ⟶ ∞. □
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4 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

Remark 1. Note that, if the parameter a is negative, then Applying the Laplace transform to (12) and simplifying
−a > 0implying thatlimt ⟶ ∞ exp (−at) � ∞. Hence, it, we obtain the following:
x(t) ⟶ ∞ when t ⟶ ∞. Te above means that the
S + am 􏼁ex (S) � ex0
system (1) can only converge to the reference r(t) when
a > 0. ex0 (13)
⇒ex (S) � .
Remark 2. We can observe that if r(t) � r � constant for all S + am
time, then r_ (t) � 0, and the controller given in Teorem 1 is Ten, to obtain the solution ex (t), we need the inverse
given by u(t) � ar, and the solution is given by Laplace transform, which is as follows:
x(t) � r + (x0 − r)exp (−at).
Note that, u(t) given in Teorem 1 does not have ex0
ex (t) � L− 1 􏼂ex (S)􏼃 � L− 1 􏼢 􏼣 � ex0 exp −am t􏼁,
a dependency on x(t), so u(t) is an open loop controller that S + am
satisfes the following: (14)
_ + a r(t)
u(t) � r(t) for tracking a variant reference r(t),
􏼨 where (14) is the solution in terms of the errors. Now, re-
u(t) � a r for tracking a constant reference r. membering that ex (t) � x(t) − r(t) and ex0 � x(0) − r(0) �
(9) x0 − r0 , we obtain the solution x(t), which is given as
follows:
In addition, with a > 0, the above controllers guarantee
that x(t) ⟶ r(t) is for a variant reference or well x(t) � r(t) + x0 − r0 􏼁exp −am t􏼁. (15)
x(t) ⟶ r for a constant reference. However, in both cases, As in the hypothesis, k < a, this implies that am � (a −
the reference´s convergence cannot be speeded up or slowed k) > 0, and thus, we have the following:
down. Te reason for this is that in the solution (7), the
constant parameter a cannot be modifed using the open- lim x(t) � lim r(t) + x0 − r0 􏼁 lim exp −am t􏼁,
t⟶∞ t⟶∞ t⟶∞
loop controllers (9), Similarly, when a < 0, the controllers (9)
are not able to stabilise the dynamics in x(t) towards the (16)
desired reference. where −am < 0, implying that the limit of the exponential
Terefore, in order to control the system (1) for any term goes to zero when t increases. Hence, x(t) ⟶ r(t)
constant parameter a, x(t) is allowed to track reference r(t). when t ⟶ ∞. □
We introduce the following theorem.
Remark 3. Notice in system (1) that if the parameter a is
Theorem 2. For the system (1) proposing u(t) � kx (t) + positive or negative, the gain k of the controller u(t) must be
_
(a − k)r(t) + r(t) with k < a and with known reference sig- selected in such a manner that k ∈ (−∞, a), which will al-
_
nals r(t) and r(t), we obtain x(t) ⟶ r(t) when t ⟶ ∞. ways guarantee that −am < 0, implying that x(t) ⟶ r(t)
when t ⟶ ∞.
Proof. To prove the above-given theorem, u(t) is substituted
into system (1), obtaining the following: Remark 4. It can be observed that if r(t) � r � constant for
_ + ax(t) � kx(t) +(a − k)r(t) + r(t).
x(t) _ (10) all time, then r_ (t) � 0, and the controller given in Teorem 2
will be given by u(t) � kx(t) + (a − k)r.
Note that, system (10), also can be represented as follows: Note that, u(t) given in Teorem 2 has the dependency
on x(t), so u(t) is a close loop controller that satisfes the
_ − r(t))
(x(t) _ +(a − k)(x(t) − r(t)) � 0, (11) following:
where defning ex (t) � x(t) − r(t) and e_x (t) � x(t)
_ − r(t)
_
in error dynamics terms will have the following:
e_x (t) + am ex (t) � 0; with am � a − k and ex (0) � ex0 .
(12)

_
u(t) � kx(t) +(a − k)r(t) + r(t), for a variant reference r(t),
􏼨 (17)
u(t) � kx(t) +(a − k)r, for a constant reference r,

where the above-given controllers guarantee that solution (15), the parameter am � (a − k) > 0 can be mod-
x(t) ⟶ r(t) is for a variant reference or well x(t) ⟶ r for ifed with diferent values of k, implying that the exponential
a constant reference. In both cases, the convergence to the term exp (−am t) decreases to zero quickly or slowly,
reference can be sped up or slowed down because, in the depending on the choice of k.
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Mathematical Problems in Engineering 5

Remark 5. Note that, while the gain k is much smaller than However, if I want to estimate the time TS , the solution x(t)
the parameter a, the exponential term exp (−am t) will de- is very close to the reference r(t). Consider the general
crease faster to zero when t ⟶ ∞. Tis means that k can be solution in terms of the error given in (14) by
used to make x(t) approach the desired reference r(t) ex (t) � ex0 exp (−am t) and suppose that for some time
quicker when t increases. t � TS , we have the following:

4. The Generalised Setting Time, TS

Now, suppose that we have selected some k < a, and
according to Teorem 2, x(t) ⟶ r(t) when t ⟶ ∞.

ex TS 􏼁 � ex0 exp −am TS 􏼁 � (P %)ex0 ; with P % as a percentaje. (18)

Equation (18) implies that exp (−am TS ) � P %, and If r(t) � r for all time, then r(TS ) � r0 � r, implying that
when applying the logarithm for both sizes, we obtain the
x TS 􏼁 � (1 − P%)r +(P%)x0 ; for a constant reference r,
following:
(21)
1
TS � − ln (P %); with am � a − k, (19)
am where (20) and (21) indicate how close x(t) is to the ref-
erence at time TS , and selecting an adequate percentage %P,
where −∞ < ln (P%) < 0 because of 0 < P% < 1. Hence, the time TS can be modifed supposing diferent values of k
equation (19) represents the necessary time to reach the P % (19).
of the initial error between x0 and r0 , and it is called the In addition, for a desired setting time TS � td , we can
generalised setting time. fnd a unique value of k such that (20) and (21) are fulflled.
Tis means that k will help auto-tune the reference rate of
4.1. Approaching the Desired reference. To determine how convergence. It will be presented in Section 5.
close x(t) is to the reference r(t) at time TS , notice that
according to (18) ex (TS ) � x(TS ) − r(TS ) � (P %)(x0 − r0 ), 4.2. Percentage Convergence. Now, suppose that we have
and then selected some P% and a desired setting time TS � td ,
x TS 􏼁 � r TS 􏼁 + P% x0 − r0 􏼁; for a variant reference r(t). therefore,
(20)

x td 􏼁 � r td 􏼁 + P% x0 − r0 􏼁; for a variant reference r(t),

􏼨 (22)
x td 􏼁 � (1 − P%)r +(P%)x0 ; for a constant reference r.

In addition, satisfying (22) in fnite time TS � td implies Taking (23) into the close loop controllers u(t) given in
being able to speed up or slow down the rate at which the (17), we have the following:
solution x(t) approaches the reference. Hence, to indicate
the approximation, expression, (22) is called the percentage 1 1
convergence. u(t) � 􏼠a + _
ln (P %)􏼡x(t) − ln (P %)r(t) + r(t),
TS TS
5. The Convergence Gain k (24)

Te gain k is useful for designing controllers that speed up or where (24) guarantees the percentage convergence shown in
slow down the convergence rate to the desired reference; this (22) for a variant reference r(t). For the case when the
means that k must guarantee that the percentage conver- reference is constant, r(t) � r for all time implies that
gence given in (22) is fulflled. In order to fnd k, we use the _ � 0.
r(t)
equation (19), obtaining am � −1/TS ln (P%) � a − k, and From now on, to know the percentage that we are using
therefore, in (19) and obtain a formula, we use the notation
1 TS � TS(P%), where the following table shows some results
k�a+ ln (P %) with TS � td . (23) for a diferent P%.
TS
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6 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

According to Table 1, with TS (2%), TS (0.7%), and Table 1: Setting time TS for a diferent P%.
TS (0.1%), the corresponding formulas for u(t) can be found
TS (P%) � −1/am ln (P %)
with (24) obtaining the following:
TS (2%) � 3.9120/am ≈ 4/am
4 4 TS (1%) � 4.6052/am
u(t) � 􏼠a − 􏼡x(t) + _
r(t) + r(t), (25a) TS (0.7%) � 4.9618/am ≈ 5/am
TS (2%) TS (2%)
TS (0.1%) � 6.9078/am ≈ 7/am

5 5
u(t) � 􏼠a − 􏼡x(t) + _
r(t) + r(t),
TS (0.7%) TS (0.7%) Table 2: Percentage convergence.
(25b) For a variant reference r(t)
⎨ x(td ) � r(td ) + 2%(x0 − r0 );
⎧
⎪ with TS (2%) � td
7 7 x(td ) � r(td ) + 0.7%(x0 − r0 ); with TS (0.7%) � td
u(t) � 􏼠a − 􏼡x(t) + _
r(t) + r(t), ⎪
⎩
TS (0.1%) TS (0.1%) x(td ) � r(td ) + 0.1%(x0 − r0 ); with TS (0.1%) � td
(25c) For a constant reference r
⎨ x(td ) � (98%)r + (2%)x0 ;
⎪
⎧ with TS (2%) � td
where selecting the desired setting time, TS (P%) � td , and x(td ) � (99.3%)r + (0.7%)x0 ; with TS (0.7%) � td
⎪
⎩
using the controllers (25a)–(25c), an approximation to the x(td ) � (99.9%)r + (0.1%)x0 ; with TS (0.1%) � td
desired reference r(t), can be guaranteed due to the per-
centage convergence given in (22). Terefore, we have
Table 2. Remark 8. It can be observed that for a constant reference
r(t) � r, if the initial condition x0 is high, it is more con-
venient to use the control’s formula given by (25b) or (25c),
Remark 6. Note that, with a small P%, the solution x(t) will improving the approach to the reference in a fnite time
be so close to the desired reference in a fnite time TS (P%) � td . However, x0 � 0 with (25a) is more than
TS (P%) � td . enough for obtaining a good approach.

Remark 7. Note that, for a variant reference r(t), if the initial Theorem 3. For system (1), a > 0 with u(t) as in (24). It can
error ex0 � x0 − r0 is high, it is more convenient to use the be proved that the gain k can be selected as k � 0, which
control’s formula given by (25b) or (25c), improving the implies that the setting time TS (P%) � −1/a ln (P %) and
approach to the reference in a fnite time TS (P%) � td . controller u(t) is reduced as follows:

_
u(t) � a r(t) + r(t), for tracking a variant reference r(t),
􏼨 (26)
u(t) � a r, for tracking a constant reference r.

Similarly, the solutions x(t) will be given as follows: Te above-given theory means that we use u(t) �
_
ar(t) + r(t), and then in (20), we have the following:
_
x(t) � r(t) + x0 − r0 􏼁exp (−at); with u(t) � a r(t) + r(t), 1
x TS 􏼁 � r TS 􏼁 + P% x0 − r0 􏼁; with TS � − ln (P %).
x(t) � r + x0 − r􏼁exp (−at); with u(t) � a r. a
(28)
(27)
In addition, with u(t) � ar, then in (21), we obtain the
following:
Proof. To prove Teorem 3, remember that in Teorem 2, 1
we have that k < a, and a > 0 implies that k can be selected as x TS 􏼁 � (1 − %P)r +(P%)x0 with TS � − ln (P %).
a
k � 0; this fact in (23) guarantees that TS (P%) �
(29)
−1/a ln (P %), and with this setting time in (24), we obtain
_
that u(t) � a r(t) + r(t). _ �
If r(t) � r for all time, then r(t)
0, implying that u(t) � a r. Remark 9. Note that, by applying the controllers (26) in the
Now, with k � 0, and taking the general solution x(t) given system (1), the approach to the desired reference shown in
in (7), where am � (a − k) > 0, then am � a. Terefore, x(t) � (28) and in (29) can be only ensured in a set time
r(t) + (x0 − r0 )exp (−at), and if r(t) � r for all time, then TS � −1/a ln (P %).
r(0) � r0 � r, implying that x(t) � r + (x0 − r)exp (−at). Te following example clarifes what occurs geo-
Terefore, Teorem 3 has been proven. □ metrically when the open loop controllers (26) are applied.
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 7

Example 1. Considering the frst-order diferential equation TS (2%) � 4/a � 16; TS (0.7%) � 5/a � 20 and TS (0.1%) �
given as follows: 7/a � 28; the solution x(t) approaches the reference r(t)
according to equation (28).
_ + ax(t) � u(t) with a � 0.25 and x(0) � 0.25,
x(t) (30)
Now, to accomplish x(t) by speeding up or slowing
with a reference r(t) � 1.5 + sin (0.25t)exp (−0.03t). To down the rate of convergence to the reference r(t), the close
accomplish that x(t) tracks the reference r(t), we use the loop control given in (24) is useful to achieve this goal, as
_
open loop controller given in (26) by u(t) � a r(t) + r(t). seen in the following example.
_
To design u(t), the signal r(t) is needed. Hence, the
derivative of r(t) is given by r(t) _ � 0.25 cos (0.25t) Example 2. We consider system (30) again with the same
exp (−0.03t) − 0.03 sin (0.25t)exp (−0.03t), obtaining the reference r(t). Terefore, to achieve that x(td ) � r(td ) +
following: P%(x0 − r0 ) in a desired setting time TS (P%) � td , and with
0 < td < − 1/a ln (P %) or well td > − 1/a ln (P %), close-
_
u(t) � 0.25r(t) + r(t). (31) loop controller (24) is applied for this task. For this ex-
ample, suppose that P% � 0.7%, which will produce the
Moreover, applying the above- controller into (30) and control formula (25b), and with setting times td � 10 and
using MATLAB Simulink, the graph of x(t) and r(t) are td � 25, we obtain the following controllers.
simulated in Figure 1, where in each setting time,

5 5 25 1
u(t) � 􏼒0.25 − _ �−
􏼓x(t) + r(t) + r(t) _
x(t) + r(t) + r(t), (32a)
10 10 100 2
5 5 5 1
u(t) � 􏼒0.25 − _ �−
􏼓x(t) + r(t) + r(t) _
x(t) + r(t) + r(t). (32b)
25 25 100 5

Figure 2: solution x(t) approaching reference r(t) shows setting time, then the percentage convergence shown in (22)
that x(t) is tracking reference r(t) when controllers (32a) is realised.
and (32b) are applied to the system (30). Hence, to understand the logical design of the controller,
Likewise, Figure 3 shows the controllers (32a) and (32b). the following steps are presented:
(1) Te mathematical model to be controlled must be
Example 3. Consider the system given by x(t) _ + ax(t) � manipulated algebraically in order to take the form
u(t) with a � 0.3, and x(0) � −2. To visualise the dynamic x_ + ax � u.
behaviour of x(t) tracking high-frequency references, the
(2) Once we obtain the form x_ + ax � u, to track any
closed-loop controller u(t) � (a + 1/TS ln (P %))x(t) − 1/
desired reference, the close loop controller (24) must
_
TS ln (P %)r(t) + r(t) is designed considering Tables 3
be selected.
and 4.
To fulfl the percentage convergence, x(td ) � r(td )+ (3) To guarantee the percentage convergence from Ta-
P%x0 , we propose that %P � 0.001 with a desired setting ble 2, select small percentages, such as %P � 2%,
time Ts � td � 4 seconds; therefore, the controller u(t) 1%, and 0.1%.
necessary for tracking each reference is given as follows: (4) For a desired setting time Ts (%P) � td , the time td
1 1 must be selected in such a manner so as to achieve
_
u(t) � 􏼒a + ln(0.001)􏼓x(t) − ln(0.001)r(t) + r(t). a smooth and gradual convergence to the reference
4 4
(33) because a faster convergence can damage the actu-
ators or electromechanical parts. Terefore, to ac-
Tus, when we apply controller (33) to the system, the complish smooth convergence, propose that
solution, x(t), tracks the desired references with high- td � μ|ex (0)| � μ|x(0) − r| with μ ≥ min (μ), where
frequency intervals, as seen in Figures 4 and 5. μ is a proportionality constant that must be fxed
according to the behaviour in the physical model.
(5) In order to fnd the minimal μ, min(μ), it is necessary
5.1. Algorithm for Tuning the Convergence Gain k and the to know the system´s initial state, x(0) and propose
Closed-Loop Controller. For a real-time implementation, a constant reference r to be reached. Ten, when the
where a mathematical model can be represented as the frst- actuator is turned on, observe the time in which
order diferential equation (1), the open loop control (9) can the signal x(t) reaches the desired reference r; then
be used to observe the behaviour of the system. However, min(μ) × |ex (0)| � observed time in reaching the
closed-loop controller (24) is the best option for tracking the reference, with, min(μ) � observed time/|ex (0)|.
desired reference; since this controller ensures that the so- (6) Eventually, choose a constant parameter μ ≥ min(μ)
lution x(t) approaches the reference very closely in a desired and propose that td � μ|ex (0)|; later, this time must
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

2.5

x (4/a) = r (4/a) + 2% (x0 − r0)

2
x (5/a) = r (5/a) + 0.7% (x0 − r0)

r0 1.5 x (7/a) = r (7/a) + 0.1% (x0 − r0)

0.5
TS (2%) = 4/a TS (0.7%) = 5/a TS (0.1%) = 7/a
x0
0
0 5 10 15 16 20 28
Time (Seconds)
x (t)
r (t)
Figure 1: Solution x(t) approaches the reference r(t) according to equation (28).

2.5
x (10) = r (10) + 0.7% (x0 − r0)
2
r0 1.5

1
0.5 TS (0.7%) = 10
x0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Seconds)
x (t) = r (t) + (x0 − r0) exp (−1/2t)
r (t) = 1.5 + sin (0.25t) exp (−0.03t)
2.5
2
x (25) = r (25) + 0.7% (x0 − r0)
r0 1.5

1
0.5 TS (0.7%) = 25
x0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Seconds)

x (t) = r (t) + (x0 − r0) exp (−1/5t)

r (t) = 1.5 + sin (0.25t) exp (−0.03t)
Figure 2: Solution x(t) approaching reference r(t).

be considered for convergence gain k or the closed- diagram in Figure 6. Subsequently, feedback closed-loop
loop control (24), implying the auto-tuning for the control was designed to reach a reference signal following
controller. the algorithm presented in Section 5.1. In the system, it is
assumed that there is a heat fow rate between the tank and
6. Temperature Control System Simulation the environment.
and Implementation Moreover, the system is closed, and in this case, the
liquid is water, and the heat transfer occurs by convection;
Tis section presents a mathematical model developed to use the tank heater emits heat toward the liquid at a rate qa , and
the above control theory, in a real-time application, as in the the environment dissipates it at a rate qb . Te liquid tem-
temperature control system, as shown in a schematic perature Tl is uniform and has a thermal capacitance Cl . To
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 9

1
0.9
0.8 .
u (t) = −25/100 x (t) +1/2 r (t) + r (t)
0.7
0.6

u (t)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Seconds)

0.65
0.6 .
0.55 u (t) = −5/100 x (t) +1/5 r (t) + r (t)
0.5
0.45
u (t)

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Seconds)
_ for (td � 10)up and (td � 25)do wn.
Figure 3: u(t) � (a − 5/TS (0.7%))x(t) + 5/TS (0.7%)r(t) + r(t)

Table 3: High frequency references.

Reference # 1
r(t) � 0.25 + sin (ωt + cos (Ωt)); with ω � 1; Ω � 80
Reference # 2
r(t) � 0.5 cos (2πf 1 t) + sin (2πf 2 t) + 0.5 cos (πf 3 t); with f 1 � 15; f 2 � 13; f 3 � 17.

Table 4: Derivatives of the high frequency references.

Derivative of reference # 1
r_ (t) � (ω − Ω sin (Ωt))cos (ωt + cos (Ωt)); with ω � 1; Ω � 80
Derivative of reference # 2
r_ (t) � −πf 1 sin (2πf 1 t) + 2πf 2 cos (2πf 2 t) − 0.5πf 3 sin (πf 3 t); with f 1 � 15; f 2 � 13; f 3 � 17.

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
td = 4
-3
-3.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time (seconds)

x (t)
Reference #1
Figure 4: x(t) tracking the reference # 1; r(t) � 0.25 + sin (ωt + cos (Ωt)).
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

-1

-2

-3

-4 td = 4

-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time (seconds)

x (t)
Reference #2
Figure 5: x(t) tracking the reference # 2; r(t) � 0.5 cos (2πf1 t) + sin (2πf2 t) + 0.5 cos (πf3 t).

Te
qb

Controller
K-Thermocouple
Tl Cl

qa Tank

Tank
heater

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of the temperature control system.

simplify the analysis, it is assumed that a concentrated In addition, considering that Te can vary regarding time,
parameter model can represent the thermal system and that we denote this temperature as Te (t). However, for short time
the characterised substances have a thermal capacitance and periods, this could be considered constant.
insignifcant resistance. However, since the temperature of the liquid Tl will be
Consider the following system: modifed as the tank is supplied with a source heat qa , then,
from now on, we write Tl (t) and qa (t) because (37) can be
dTl rewritten as follows:
cl � q a − qb , (34)
dt
1 1 1
where the external temperature Te and liquid temperature Tl T_ l (t) + T (t) � qa (t) + T (t). (38)
are measurable, then RCl l Cl RCl e

Tl − Te Now, to use the control theory previously developed, and

qb � , (35) according to the algorithm presented in Section 5.1, the frst
R
step is to make system (38) take the form of system (1). To
where R is the thermal resistance of the tank wall; when achieve this, suppose in (38) that the thermal control qa (t) �
substituting (34) in (35), we can obtain the following: Cl (u(t) − 1/RCl Te (t)). Tus, we will obtain the following:
dTl T − Te 1
cl � qa − 􏼒 l 􏼓. (36) T_ l (t) + T (t) � u(t)with Tl (0) � Tl0 , (39)
dt R RCl l
Ten, simplifying the above equation, we have the following: where (39) has the same form as the one shown in system (1),
dTl Tl q T with u(t) as virtual control, a � 1/RCl , R � 1, and Cl � 0.017,
+ � a+ e . (37) and then a > 0. Terefore, Teorem 1 can be used to design an
dt RCl Cl RCl open loop control u(t) and guarantee that Tl (t) approaches
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 11

the desired temperature TD when the time increases. Tus, With (40) in (39), and using Teorem 1 with TD as
the temperature TD is proposed as a constant, and according a constant, the solution is given as follows:
to equation (26), we write the following: 1
1 Tl (t) � TD + 􏼐Tl0 − TD 􏼑exp (−at) with a � , (42)
u(t) � aTD with a � , RCl
(40)
RCl
where according to equation (28) for distinct P%, the
where we substitute (40) into qa (t) and simplify, obtaining percentage convergence is given as follows:
the following:
TD − Te (t)
qa (t) � . (41)
R

⎧
⎪
⎪ 4 4
⎪
⎪ Tl 􏼒 􏼓 � (98%)TD + (2%)Tl0 ; with TS (2%) � � 4RCl ,
⎪
⎪ a a
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 5 5
⎪ Tl 􏼒 􏼓 � (99.3%)TD + (0.7%)Tl0 ; with TS (0.7%) � � 5RCl , (43)
⎪
⎪ a a
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 7 7
⎪
⎩ Tl 􏼒 􏼓 � (99.9%)TD + (0.1%)Tl0 ; with TS (0.1%) � � 7RCl .
a a

Tl (t) − Te (t) 7Cl TD − Tl (t)􏼁

Ten, we consider Tl0 � 25p Celsius, Te (t) � 32p Celsius, qa (t) � + . (47)
R td
and TD � 90p Celsius. Figure 7 presents the simulation
results.
For this simulation, suppose a setting time TS (0.1%) �
Notice in Figure 7 that the desired temperature TD is
td � 600 seconds with Tl0 � 25p Celsius, Te (t) � 32p Celsius,
reached in a very short amount of time; this is mathemat-
and TD � 90p Celsius.
ically possible, but a real physical system will depend on the
Notice in Figure 8 that the desired temperature TD is
power and precision of the components, physical confgu-
reached in a setting time TS (0.1%) � td � 600 and at the
ration, and sensor delays. For this reason, for real-time
bottom, the respective thermal control qa (t) as given in (47).
experiments, closed-loop controller (24) is the best way to
By another hand, the implementation of the temperature
control the convergence speed to the desired temperature.
control system has the following main elements: a tank with
Terefore, to ensure that Tl (t) approaches TD in a desired
a heater and temperature sensor, a control Arduino board,
set time TS (P%) � td , it is supposed that P% � 0.1%,
and a liquid crystal display (LCD) to see the desired tem-
obtaining the virtual control u(t), as given by the following
perature and process values, and one potentiometer to set
equation:
the temperature reference value. Te function of the tem-
7 7 1 perature sensor is to measure the liquid temperature in the
u(t) � 􏼠a − 􏼡T (t) + T ; with a � . tank; the analogic signal sends it to the analogic digital (A/D)
TS (0.1%) l TS (0.1%) D RCl
converter and then toward the control board, where the
(44)
control action is performed. Suppose the desired tempera-
In addition, using Table 2 with TD as a constant ref- ture is diferent from the real temperature, the control is
erence, we have the following equation: actived or deactivated, and a relay that feeds to the power
tank heater. Figure 9 is a relationship diagram among the
Tl td 􏼁 � (99.9%)TD +(0.1%)Tl0 ; with TS (0.1%) � td . main elements of the temperature control system for tank
(45) liquids.
In the implementation process, all main elements of
Ten, according to Teorem 2 with (44) in (39), the Figure 9 were integrated. In the ISIS Proteus software, the
solution will be given as follows: diagram was developed with wiring connections (see Fig-
7 ure 10). Te 5 VDC power source (V1) supplies the control
Tl (t) � TD + 􏼐Tl0 − TD 􏼑exp −am t􏼁with am � . Arduino board (U1), which was programmed with the
TS (0.1%)
temperature control shown in equation (43); the cold-
(46)
junction-compensated K-Termocouple-to-digital con-
To know the source heat qa (t) that needs to be supplied verter (U2), the remote 8-Bit expander bus (U3), and the
to the tank and guarantee the percentage convergence given liquid crystal display (LCD1) latched switch (SW1) are
in (45), the virtual control (44) is substituted for qa (t) � active. Te 120 VAC power source together with an active
Cl (u(t) − 1/RCl Te (t)), obtaining the following: latched switch (SW2) supplies the tank heater (OV1) when
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

100
TD 90
80 Tl (4/a) = 98%TD + 2%Tl0
70 Tl (5/a) = 99.3%TD + 0.7%Tl0
60
Tl (7/a) = 99.9%TD + 0.1%Tl0
50
40 TS (2%) = 4/a TS (0.7%) = 5/a TS (0.1%) = 7/a
Tl0 30
20
0 0.068 0.085 0.1 0.119
Time (Seconds)
Tl (t)
TD
59
58.8
58.6 TD − Te (t)
58.4 qa (t) =
58.2 R
58
57.8
57.6
57.4
57.2
57
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Time (Seconds)
Figure 7: Te temperature of the liquid Tl (t) reaches TD and at the bottom, the respective thermal control qa (t).

TD 90
80
Tl (td) = 99.9%TD + 0.1%Tl0
70
60
50
40 td = 600
Tl0 30
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (Seconds)
60
50
40
Tl (t) − Te (t) 7Cl (TD − Tl (t))
30 qa (t) = +
R td
20
10
0
-10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (Seconds)
Figure 8: Tl (t) reaching TD in a setting time TS (0.1%) � td � 600 and close loop controller qa (t).

the relay coil (RL1) is active because of the received signal are sent from the control board (U1) and terminals A4 and
from the control board digital output 4 (U1), and its contact A5 to the remote 8-Bit expander bus (U3) terminals, SDA,
normally changes the state from open to closed and lets the and SCL. Afterwards, this device transmits the signals to-
current fow. ward the liquid crystal display (LCD1) where the values are
In the feedback-closed loop, there is a temperature displayed.
sensor (TC1), which measures the real liquid temperature. For the application of the developed theory in the
Te cold-junction-compensated K-Termocouple-to-digital physical prototype of this work, follow the next algorithm:
converter (U2) receives the analogic measure from terminals
(1) Integrate the main elements shown in Figure 9,
T+ and T−. Afterwards, it sends a digital signal from ter-
considering the wiring diagram from Figure 10. With
minals 5, 6, and 7 to terminals 10, 11, and 12 of the control
this, it is possible to obtain the physical prototype.
board (U1). Te real liquid temperature measured is com-
pared with the desired temperature previously ftted with the (2) Connect the USB (universal serial bus) interface
potentiometer (RV2). Tis value is sent to the analogic input from the computer to the Arduino board. Previously,
A0 of the control board (U1). Next, the temperature values the software, Arduino IDE, was required.
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 13

Figure 9: Relationship diagram among the main elements.

Figure 10: Wiring diagram of the temperature control system.

(3) Program the controller in the Arduino IDE software min(μ) × |Tl0 − TD | � 360 seconds, implying that min(μ) �
obtained from the control theory. 360/60 � 6; afterwards, this μ was selected as min(μ), and
(4) Verify the program and upload it to the Arduino therefore, the other set temp was fxed at the temperatures
board if the compiling is correct. 75°C, 80°C, and 85°C, and we obtained td � 6|30 − 75| � 270
seconds, td � 6|30 − 80| � 300 seconds, and td � 6|30− 85| �
(5) In Figure 11, the graph of the control temperature’s
330 seconds.
physical behaviour is shown.
Figure 12 shows the implemented control temperature
system, where there is the integration of the main elements
7. Results and Discussions shown previously in Figure 9: Relationship diagram among
the main elements, which are connected as in Figure 10:
7.1. Results. Te design of a novel nonlinear control method
Wiring diagram of the temperature control system. More-
theory for frst-order systems works properly, as seen in the
over, with a USB interface from a computer port connected
simulation results. Moreover, in the implementation pro-
to an Arduino board port, it is possible to monitor the values
totype, the set temp (set temperature and blue colour signal)
displayed in the LCD (set temp and real temp) in a graphical
versus the real temp (real temperature and red colour signal)
manner and in real-time on the computer. Te strategy used
is shown in Figure 11. Te set temp, which was manipulated
to verify the efectiveness of the proposed temperature
and fxed at 90°C, is the desired reference, whereas the real
control was to make several proofs of the implemented
temp reaches the desired reference maintaining a steady-
theory in the prototype from Figure 12, mainly fxing the
state error between ±2°C. Furthermore, the set temp was
temperature reference in diferent values. Ten, the main
fxed at diferent temperatures, 75°C, 80°C, and 85°C, and the
target of controlling the temperature concerning a reference
system repeats the same behaviour; that is, real temp reaches
was accomplished.
the set temp and holds onto the same error. It should be
noted that controller (47) was tuned with the desired setting
time td � μ|Tl0 − TD |, with Tl0 � 30°C and TD � 90° C when 7.2. Discussion. Te novel nonlinear control theory design
the heater was on, and the real temp Tl (t) reached the set and its implementation in the temperature controller of the
temp TD in approximately 360 seconds. Ten, prototype tank liquid heater were successful. Te theory
 2629, 2023, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/1029575 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [08/10/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
14 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

100.0

80.0
Temperature (°C )

60.0

40.0

20.0
2 102 202 302 402 502
Time (Seconds)

Set_Temp
Real_Temp
Figure 11: Set temp vs. real temp of the prototype implementation.

Te implementation of the liquid temperature control

for the frst-order system from the theory designed in this
work will help all interested researchers fnd novel practical
theories because these are very useful in the industry and
society and can be used in several diferent system models,
such as pressure, level, humidity, and acceleration.
In future work, the control theory can be extended to
second-order systems or even high-order systems, consid-
ering initial conditions diferent from zero and abrupt
changes (disturbances and uncertainty). Tis avoids using
the transfer function theory and solves the problems more
directly. In addition, these can be considered physical
models suitable for these extended theories and for
implementation.
Figure 12: Implemented control temperature system.
Data Availability
simulation gave hopeful results. In the integration of the
main prototype elements, there were some false contact All data used to support the fndings of this study are in-
problems between gadgets and devices; all problems were cluded within the article, and any additional support is
solved, and the prototype started up successfully. In the available from the corresponding author upon request.
factory, with experience, we can fnd diferent machines with
temperature controllers, and most of the time, the tem- Conflicts of Interest
perature errors are between 5°C and 15°C in ovens or heaters
working with temperatures starting from 70°C to 120°C. For Te authors declare that there are no conficts of interest.
this reason, we believe that the error of ±2°C in this
implemented prototype is a good result. Tus, the work can References
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