GenZoo Reviewer - Nieva

Cleavage & Blastula

1. Embryogenesis
Definition: The process by which the embryo forms and develops.
- In mammals, refers to early stages of prenatal development
- Later stages are described as fetal development
- Starts with fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) by a sperm cell (spermatozoon)

2. Fertilization
- Can occur internally or externally in animals
- Internal fertilization: Used by viviparous, ovoviviparous, and oviparous animals with hard-
shelled eggs

3. Classification of Eggs
Based on Amount and Distribution of Yolk:
1. Isolecithal: Yolk evenly distributed (e.g., sea urchins, amphioxus, humans)
2. Telolecithal: Yolk distributed in a gradient (e.g., reptiles, fish, birds, amphibians)
3. Centrolecithal: Yolk concentrated in the center of the egg (e.g., most arthropods)

4. Early Observations in Embryology

- Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876): Baltic German scientist, pioneer in embryology
- Christian Heinrich Pander (1794-1865): Baltic German biologist, “father of embryology”

5. Cleavage
Definition: Early stages of embryonic development where a fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes
rapid cell divisions without increasing in overall size.

- First observed by Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680), Dutch microscopist and naturalist

Types of Cleavage:
1. Holoblastic Cleavage:
- Entire cell divides into blastomeres
- Occurs with minimal or moderate yolk
- Complete cleavage (e.g. Mammals, amphibians, echinoderms,)

2. Meroblastic Cleavage:
- Occurs in eggs with greater quantity of yolk
- Incomplete cleavage (e.g. Reptiles, birds, fish)

Embryo Hemispheres:
- Animal Pole: Upper hemisphere, smaller cells, rapid division, more metabolically
active
- Vegetal Pole: Lower hemisphere, larger yolk-rich cells, slower division, provides
nutrients

Cleavage Patterns:
1. Holoblastic:
- Radial (echinoderms, amphibians)
 - Spiral (annelids, molluscs, flatworms)
- Bilateral (tunicates)
- Rotational (mammals, nematodes)

2. Meroblastic:
- Telolecithal Bilateral (cephalopod molluscs)
- Centrolecithal Superficial (most insects)

6. Early Embryonic Stages

1. Morula:
- Solid ball of cells (blastomeres)
- Formed by division of zygote
- Typically in species with little yolk and complete cleavage

2. Blastula:
- Hollow ball of cells
- Contains fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel
- Forms after multiple rounds of cell division (cleavage)

Gastrulation and Related Processes

A. Gastrulation
Definition The process where an embryo transforms from a single-layered structure (blastula)
into a multi-layered structure (gastrula).

Key Points:
- Introduced by Ernst Haeckel in 1872
- Establishes body axes (e.g., anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral)
- Involves cell migration and differentiation

B. Germ Layers
- Ectoderm: Outermost layer (skin, nervous system)
- Mesoderm: Middle layer (muscle, bone, blood)
- Endoderm: Innermost layer (digestive tract, lungs)

C. Primary Cell Types

1. Epithelial cells: Tightly packed, form sheets or layers
- Characteristics: Polarized, cell-cell adhesions, non-motile
2. Mesenchymal cells: Mobile, spindle-shaped
- Characteristics: Migratory, contractile, involved in extracellular matrix remodeling

D. Cellular Transitions
- Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT): Epithelial cells become mesenchymal
- Mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET): Mesenchymal cells become epithelial

E. Morphogenetic Movements
1. Invagination: Inward folding of cell sheet
2. Involution: Inward rolling of cells underneath existing layer
3. Ingression: Individual cell migration inward
4. Delamination: Separation of cells within a sheet
 5. Epiboly: Spreading or expansion of cell sheet

F. Steps in Gastrulation
1. Blastopore formation
2. Involution of mesoderm
3. Formation of primitive gut (archenteron)
4. Chordamesoderm formation
5. Mesoderm formation
6. Ectoderm formation
7. Yolk plug formation

G. Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes

- Protostomes: Blastopore becomes mouth (e.g., invertebrates)
- Deuterostomes: Blastopore becomes anus (e.g., vertebrates)

H. Body Cavity Formation

- Coelom: Fluid-filled cavity within mesoderm
- Schizocoely: Common in protostomes, mesoderm splits
- Enterocoely: Common in deuterostomes, endoderm outgrowths form
pouches
- Acoelom: No body cavity
- Pseudocoelom: Partial body cavity, not fully lined by mesoderm

I. Spemann-Mangold Experiment (1924)

- Demonstrated existence of “organizer” tissue in embryo
- Transplanted dorsal lip from donor embryo to host
- Proved organizer’s role in embryonic development

J. Neurulation
Definition: Process of forming the neural tube (future brain and spinal cord)

Steps:
1. Neural plate formation
2. Neural fold formation
- Neural fold: A ridge formed on the dorsal surface of the embryo.
3. Neural tube closure
- Neural tube: The hollow structure formed by the fusion of the neural folds.
• Anterior part: Develops into the brain.
• Posterior part: Develops into the spinal cord
4. Neural crest formation

K. Post-Neurulation Development
- Cell differentiation and specialization
- Organ and tissue formation (e.g., heart, lungs, kidneys)
- Activation of specific genes determining cell fate

Differentiation of Germ Layers

Differentiation occurs as the blastula converts into a triploblastic stage during gastrulation. The
three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to all organs in the
developing embryo.
 A. Germ Layers

• Ectoderm

Origin: Pigmented cells from the animal pole that spread to enclose the macromeres of
the vegetal hemisphere.

Derivatives and Fate:

1. Neural Tube: Develops into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
2. Epidermis: Forms the outermost layer of skin
3. Sensory Structures: Develops into eyes, ears, and nose
4. Other derivatives:
- All other neurons
- Sense receptors

• Mesoderm

Origin: Cells from the marginal zone of the blastula that move inward through the
blastopore (involution).

Subdivisions and Derivatives:

1. Paraaxial Mesoderm: Forms somites (develops into vertebrae, ribs, and muscles)
2. Intermediate Mesoderm: Develops into kidneys and reproductive organs
3. Lateral Plate Mesoderm:
- Somatic layer: Contributes to body wall
- Splanchnic layer: Contributes to heart and blood vessels
4. Limb Buds: Give rise to bones and muscles of the limbs

Other Derivatives and Fate:

- Notochord
- Blood
- Bone
- Sex organs

• Endoderm

Origin: Cells that move inward and settle in the interior of the embryo, displacing the
original blastocoel.

Derivatives and Fate:

1. Glandular Organs: Forms thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus glands
2. Digestive System:
- Lining of the digestive tract (esophagus, stomach, intestines)
- Associated glands (liver, pancreas)
3. Respiratory System: Develops into lungs and associated structures

Principles of Heredity
A. Key Terms and Concepts
1. Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring
 2. Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait
3. Allele Alternative forms of a gene
4. Dominant: An allele that is expressed when present in either one or two copies
5. Recessive: An allele that is only expressed when two copies are present
6. Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a trait
7. Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a trait
8. Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism
9. Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism

B. Gregor Mendel and His Experiments

- Austrian monk and scientist (1822-1884)

- Conducted experiments on pea plants from 1856 to 1863
- Published “Experiments on Plant Hybridization” in 1866

C. Why Mendel Chose Pea Plants

1. Easy to grow and quick life cycle
2. Self-fertilizing
3. Ability to control pollination
4. Distinct traits
5. Many varieties available
6. Produce many offspring

D. Traits Studied by Mendel

1. Seed shape (round vs. wrinkled)
2. Seed color (yellow vs. green)
3. Flower color (purple vs. white)
4. Pod shape (inflated vs. constricted)
5. Pod color (green vs. yellow)
6. Flower position (axial vs. terminal)
7. Stem length (tall vs. short)

E. Mendel’s Principles of Heredity

Law of Segregation
- Each organism possesses two alleles for each trait
- Alleles segregate during gamete formation
- Each gamete receives only one allele for each trait

Law of Independent Assortment

- Alleles for different traits are inherited independently

Law of Uniformity
- When pure-breeding homozygous individuals are crossed, all offspring in the first
generation (F1) will be identical

Law of Dominance
- In a heterozygous organism, the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele

F. Hybrid Crosses
Monohybrid Cross
- A cross involving one trait
 - Typical ratio in F2 generation: 3:1 (dominant:recessive)

Dihybrid Cross
- A cross involving two traits
- Typical ratio in F2 generation: 9:3:3:1

Test Cross
- Crossing an individual with unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual
- Used to determine if an individual with a dominant phenotype is homozygous or
heterozygous

G. Extensions of Mendelian Genetics

Incomplete Dominance
- Neither allele is completely dominant; the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate
- Example: Red and white flowers producing pink offspring

Codominance
- Both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous condition
- Example: AB blood type in humans

Multiple Alleles
- More than two alleles exist for a single gene in a population
- Example: ABO blood types in humans

H. Limitations of Mendelian Genetics

1. Does not account for gene interactions

2. Assumes traits are controlled by single genes
3. Does not explain continuous variation in traits
4. Does not consider environmental influences on gene expression

Epithelial Tissue
A. General Characteristics
1. Cellularity: Tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular material
2. Polarity: Apical (free) and basal surfaces
3. Avascular but innervated
4. High regeneration capacity
5. Attached to basement membrane

B. Types of Epithelial Tissue

1. Simple Epithelium
- Simple Squamous: Found in areas of diffusion and filtration (e.g., blood vessels,
lungs)
- Simple Cuboidal: Found in glands and kidney tubules
- Simple Columnar: Found in digestive tract lining

2. Stratified Epithelium
- Stratified Squamous: Found in high-abrasion areas (e.g., skin, esophagus)
- Stratified Cuboidal: Found in ducts of sweat and mammary glands
 - Stratified Columnar: Rare, found in male urethra and some gland ducts

3. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

- cells are in different heights, making it look like stratified; Found in respiratory tract

4. Transitional Epithelium
- allows organs to stretch; Found in organs that stretch (e.g., bladder)

C. Functions of Epithelial Tissue

1. Protection
2. Absorption
3. Secretion
4. Excretion
5. Filtration
6. Sensation

Connective Tissues
A. General Characteristics
1. Cellular Composition: Sparse, specialized cells (e.g., fibroblasts, macrophages,
adipocytes, plasma cell, mast cell)
2. Extracellular Matrix: Ground substance and fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular)
3. Varying vascularity
4. Good regenerative capacity (except cartilage)

B. Types of Connective Tissues

1. Loose Connective Tissue – provides flexibility
- Areolar: contains 3 fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular)
Functions: provide cushions, support immune defense

- Adipose: Fat tissue for energy storage and insulation

- Reticular: contains a network of reticular fibers that support soft tissues

2. Dense Connective Tissue

- Dense Regular: collagen fibers are packed, organized in parallel, providing tensile
strength in one direction (e.g. tendons and ligaments)

- Dense Irregular: collagen fibers are in irregular arrangement, providing cushioning

support in many directions (e.g. cartilage)

3. Elastic Connective Tissue

- contains high portion of elastic fibers, allowing organs to expand and contract

4. Specialized Connective Tissues

- Blood: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste
Leucocytes: White Blood Cells (WBC)
 Erythrocytes: Red Blood Cells (RBC)

- Lymph: Maintains fluid balance and aids immune defense

5. Supportive Connective Tissues

- Cartilage:
• Hyaline – smooth and glassy
• Elastic – high in elastic fibers
• Fibrocartilage – high in collagen fibers
- Bone (Osseous Tissue): Provides structural support and mineral storage

Muscular Tissues
A. General Characteristics
1. Contractility
2. Excitability
3. Elasticity and extensibility
4. Highly vascularized
5. Striations and intercalated discs (in some types)

B. Types of Muscular Tissue

1. Skeletal Muscle
- Characteristics: Long, multinucleated fibers with striations
- Location: Attached to bones
- Function: Voluntary movements, posture maintenance

2. Cardiac Muscle
- Characteristics: Short, branched fibers with intercalated discs
- Location: Heart walls
- Function: Involuntary heart contractions

3. Smooth Muscle
- Characteristics: Spindle-shaped cells without striations
- Location: Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels
- Function: Involuntary contractions of organs and vessels

C. Muscle Arrangement in Bundles (Fascicles)

1. Parallel (Fusiform) Arrangement
- Example: Biceps brachii
- Characteristics: Good endurance, large range of motion

2. Pennate Arrangement
- Unipennate: fascicles are on one side of tendon, like a feather
- Bipennate: fascicles are on both sides of tendon, like a feather
- Multipennate: fascicles are around many tendons
- Characteristics: Greater force production, reduced range of motion

3. Convergent (Triangular) Arrangement

- fascicles converge on a broad area toward a single tendon, like a fan
 4. Circular Arrangement – fascicles are in the shape of concentrix rings
5 Spiral Arrangement

D. Functional Implications of Muscle Arrangement

1. Force Production
- Pennate muscles optimized for force production
- Parallel/fusiform muscles sacrifice strength for range of motion
2. Range of Motion
- Parallel/fusiform muscles have greater range of motion
- Pennate muscles have limited range of motion
3. Speed of Contraction
- Parallel arrangement allows faster contraction
- Pennate muscles contract more slowly but with sustained power

E. Muscle Architecture and Movement Efficiency

- Specific arrangements evolved to meet mechanical demands
- Important in biomechanics, sports science, and physical therapy

F. Muscle Regeneration
1. Phases of Muscle Regeneration
- Destruction (Injury/Inflammation) Phase
- Repair Phase
- Remodeling Phase

2. Key Cellular Players

- Satellite Cells
- Macrophages
- Fibroblasts
- Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs)
- Growth Factors (e.g., IGF-1, FGF, TGF-β)

3. Factors Influencing Regeneration

- Age
- Extent of Injury
- Chronic Conditions
- Inflammation Control
- Exercise and Nutrition

4. Regenerative Limitations and Challenges

- Incomplete Recovery
- Fibrosis
- Muscular Diseases

5. Therapeutic Approaches
- Stem Cell Therapy
- Growth Factor Delivery
- Anti-Fibrotic Therapies
- Gene Therapy
- Physical Therapy and Exercise
Nervous Tissue
- Specialized for receiving stimuli and transmitting electrical signals
- Forms the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
- Regulates and controls bodily functions
- Consists of neurons and neuroglia (glial cells)

A.. The Neuron: Structure and Function

1. Cell Body (Soma)

- Contains nucleus and organelles
- Responsible for cell maintenance and protein synthesis

2. Dendrites
- Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors
- Highly branched to increase surface area for synaptic connections

3. Axon
- Transmits electrical signals away from the cell body
- Can branch into multiple terminals
- Axon hillock: site of action potential initiation

4. Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons)

- Contain synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters
- Release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

B. Nerve Processes

1. Dendrites: Receive and integrate incoming signals

2. Axons: Conduct action potentials to axon terminals

C. Synapses

1. Chemical Synapses: Convert electrical signals to chemical signals

2. Electrical Synapses: Allow direct ion passage through gap junctions

D. Neuroglia (Glial Cells)

1. Astrocytes: Provide support and maintain blood-brain barrier

2. Oligodendrocytes: Produce myelin in CNS
3. Schwann Cells: Produce myelin in PNS
4. Microglia: Immune cells of CNS
5. Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles and central canal, produce CSF

E. Functional Types of Neurons

1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Transmit information from sensory receptors to CNS

2. Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Carry signals from CNS to effectors
3. Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within CNS
F. Nervous Tissue in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

1. Brain
- Gray Matter: Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons
- White Matter: Myelinated axons
- Regions: Cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem

2. Spinal Cord
- Gray Matter: Centrally located, processes sensory information and controls reflexes
- White Matter: Surrounds gray matter, organized into ascending and descending tracts

G. Nervous Tissue in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

1. Nerves
- Sensory (Afferent) Nerves
- Motor (Efferent) Nerves
- Structure: Epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium

2. Ganglia
- Sensory Ganglia (e.g., dorsal root ganglia)
- Autonomic Ganglia

H. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

- Controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information
- Motor Neurons: Cause muscle contraction
- Sensory Neurons: Detect external stimuli

I. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

1. Sympathetic Nervous System: “Fight-or-flight” response

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: “Rest-and-digest” response
3. Enteric Nervous System: Controls gastrointestinal system

J. Nervous Tissue in Sensory Organs

1. Eyes (Retina): Photoreceptor cells convert light to electrical signals

2. Ears (Cochlea): Hair cells detect sound vibrations
3. Olfactory System: Olfactory receptors detect airborne chemicals
4. Taste Buds: Taste receptors detect chemical substances in food

K. Nerve Fibers and Synapses

Synapses: Communication Between Neurons

I. Types of Nerve Fibers

1. Myelinated Nerve Fibers

 - Structure: Covered by myelin sheath
- Function: Rapid signal transmission
- Saltatory conduction

2. Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers

- Structure: Multiple axons enveloped by a single Schwann cell

- Function: Slower signal transmission

II. Conduction of Nerve Impulses

- Action potentials
- Role of voltage-gated ion channels
- Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers