Chapter One

Introduction to Data Structure

Introduction
• In the modern world, data and its information have significance, and
there are different implementations taking place to store it in different
ways.
• Data is simply a collection of facts and figures, or you can say that data is
a set of values or values in a particular format that refers to a single set of
item values.
• The data items are then classified into sub-items, which is the group of
items that are not called the simple primary form of the item.
Introduction (cont …)
• Let's take an example where a student's name can be broken down into
three sub-items: first, middle, and last.
• But an ID assigned to a student will usually be considered a single item.

The example mentioned above,

such as ID, Age, Gender, First,
Middle, Last, Street, Area, etc.,
are elementary data items,
whereas the Name and the
Address are group data items.
 What is Data Structure?
• In the context of computers, the data structure is a specific way of storing and
organizing data in the computer's memory so that these data can be easily
retrieved and efficiently used when needed later.
• The data can be managed in many different ways, such as a logical or
mathematical model for a particular organization of data is called a data
structure.
• The variety of a specific data model depends on the two factors:
• First, it must be loaded enough into the structure to reflect the actual
relationship of the data with a real-world object.
• Second, the formation should be so simple that one can efficiently process
the data whenever necessary.
 What is Data Structure?
• Some examples of Data Structures are Arrays, Linked Lists, Stack, Queue,
Trees, etc.
• Data Structures are widely used in almost every aspect of Computer Science,
i.e., Compiler Design, Operating Systems, Graphics, Artificial Intelligence, and
many more.
• Data Structures are the main part of many Computer Science Algorithms as
they allow the programmers to manage the data in an effective way.
• It plays a crucial role in improving the performance of a program or software,
as the main objective of the software is to store and retrieve the user's data
as fast as possible.
Understanding the Need for Data Structures
• As applications are becoming more complex and the amount of data is
increasing every day, which may lead to problems with data searching,
processing speed, multiple requests handling, and many more.

• Data Structures support different methods to organize, manage, and

store data efficiently.

• With the help of Data Structures, we can easily traverse the data items.

• Data Structures provide Efficiency, Reusability, and Abstraction.

Why should we learn Data Structures?
• Data Structures and Algorithms are two of the key aspects of Computer
Science.
• Data Structures allow us to organize and store data, whereas Algorithms
allow us to process that data meaningfully.
• Learning Data Structures and Algorithms will help us become better
Programmers.
• We will be able to write code that is more effective and reliable.
• We will also be able to solve problems more quickly and efficiently.
Understanding the Objectives of Data Structures
• Data Structures satisfy two complementary objectives:
• Correctness: Data Structures are designed to operate correctly for all kinds of
inputs based on the domain of interest. In order words, correctness forms the
primary objective of Data Structure, which always depends upon the
problems that the Data Structure is meant to solve.

• Efficiency: Data Structures also requires to be efficient. It should process the

data quickly without utilizing many computer resources like memory space. In
a real-time state, the efficiency of a data structure is a key factor in
determining the success and failure of the process.
Understanding some Key Features of Data
Structures
• Some of the Significant Features of Data Structures are:
• Robustness: all computer programmers aim to produce software that yields
correct output for every possible input, along with efficient execution on all
hardware platforms. This type of robust software must manage both valid and
invalid inputs.
• Adaptability: Building software applications like Web Browsers, Word Processors,
and Internet Search Engine include huge software systems that require correct
and efficient working or execution for many years. Moreover, software evolves
due to emerging technologies or ever-changing market conditions.
• Reusability: It is known that the programmer needs many resources to build any
software, making it a costly enterprise. However, if the software is developed in a
reusable and adaptable way, then it can be applied in most future applications.
Thus, by executing quality data structures, it is possible to build reusable
software, which appears to be cost-effective and timesaving.
Classification of Data Structures
• A Data Structure delivers a structured set of variables related to each
other in various ways.
• It forms the basis of a programming tool that signifies the relationship
between the data elements and allows programmers to process the
data efficiently.
• We can classify Data Structures into two categories:
• Primitive Data Structure
• Non-Primitive Data Structure
Classification of Data Structures (cont…)
• The following figure shows the different classifications of Data
Structures.
•
Primitive Data Structures
• Primitive Data Structures are the data structures consisting of the numbers
and the characters that come in-built into programs.

• These data structures can be manipulated or operated directly by machine-

level instructions.

• Basic data types like Integer, Float, Character, and Boolean come under the
Primitive Data Structures.

• These data types are also called Simple data types, as they contain characters
that can't be divided further
Non-Primitive Data Structures
• Non-Primitive Data Structures are those data structures derived from
Primitive Data Structures.
• These data structures can't be manipulated or operated directly by
machine-level instructions.
• The focus of these data structures is on forming a set of data elements
that is either homogeneous (same data type)
or heterogeneous (different data types).
• Based on the structure and arrangement of data, we can divide these
data structures into two sub-categories -
• Linear Data Structures
• Non-Linear Data Structures
Linear Data Structures
• A data structure that preserves a linear connection among its data elements is known as a
Linear Data Structure. The arrangement of the data is done linearly, where each element
consists of the successors and predecessors except the first and the last data element.
• Based on memory allocation, the Linear Data Structures are further classified into two types:
• Static Data Structures:
• The data structures having a fixed size are known as Static Data Structures.
• The memory for these data structures is allocated at the compiler time, and their size cannot be
changed by the user after being compiled; however, the data stored in them can be altered.
• The Array is the best example of the Static Data Structure as they have a fixed size, and its data
can be modified later.
• Dynamic Data Structures:
• The data structures having a dynamic size are known as Dynamic Data Structures.
• The memory of these data structures is allocated at the run time, and their size varies during the
run time of the code.
• Moreover, the user can change the size as well as the data elements stored in these data
structures at the run time of the code.
• Linked Lists, Stacks, and Queues are common examples of dynamic data structures
Types of Linear Data Structures

• The following is the list of Linear Data Structures that we generally

use:
• Arrays
• Linked list
• Stacks
• Queues
Arrays
• An Array is a data structure used to collect multiple data elements of the same data
type into one variable.
• Instead of storing multiple values of the same data types in separate variable
names, we could store all of them together into one variable.
• An Array is a list of elements where each element has a unique place in the list.
• The data elements of the array share the same variable name; however, each
carries a different index number called a subscript.
Arrays can be classified into different types:
• One-Dimensional Array: An Array with only one row of data elements
is known as a One-Dimensional Array. It is stored in ascending storage
location.
• Two-Dimensional Array: An Array consisting of multiple rows and
columns of data elements is called a Two-Dimensional Array. It is also
known as a Matrix.
• Multidimensional Array: We can define Multidimensional Array as an
Array of Arrays. Multidimensional Arrays are not bounded to two
indices or two dimensions as they can include as many indices are per
the need.
Some Applications of Array:

• We can store a list of data elements belonging to the same data

type.
• Array acts as an auxiliary storage for other data structures.
• The array also helps store data elements of a binary tree of the
fixed count.
• Array also acts as a storage of matrices.
Linked Lists
• A Linked List is another example of a linear data structure used to store a
collection of data elements dynamically.
• Data elements in this data structure are represented by the Nodes, connected
using links or pointers.
• Each node contains two fields, the information field consists of the actual
data, and the pointer field consists of the address of the subsequent nodes in
the list.
• The pointer of the last node of the linked list consists of a null pointer, as it
points to nothing.
• Unlike the Arrays, the user can dynamically adjust the size of a Linked List as
per the requirements.
Linked List Classification
1. Singly Linked List: Each node has data and a pointer field containing an
address to the next node.

2. Doubly Linked List: A Doubly Linked List consists of an information field

and two pointer fields. The information field contains the data. The first
pointer field contains an address of the previous node, whereas another
pointer field contains a reference to the next node. Thus, we can go in
both directions (backward as well as forward).

3. Circular Linked List: The Circular Linked List is similar to the Singly Linked
List. The only key difference is that the last node contains the address of
the first node, forming a circular loop in the Circular Linked List.
 Some Applications of Linked Lists:
1.The Linked Lists help us implement stacks, queues, binary trees, and graphs of
predefined size.
2. We can also implement Operating System's function for dynamic memory
management.
3. Linked Lists also allow polynomial implementation for mathematical operations.
4. We can use Circular Linked List to implement Operating Systems or application
functions that Round Robin execution of tasks.
5. Circular Linked List is also helpful in a Slide Show where a user requires to go
back to the first slide after the last slide is presented.
6. Doubly Linked List is utilized to implement forward and backward buttons in a
browser to move forward and backward in the opened pages of a website.
Stacks
• A Stack is a Linear Data Structure that follows the LIFO (Last In, First
Out) principle that allows operations like insertion and deletion from
one end of the Stack, i.e., Top.
• Stacks can be implemented with the help of contiguous memory, an
Array, and non-contiguous memory, a Linked List. Real-life examples
of Stacks are piles of books, a deck of cards, piles of money, and many
more.
• The insertion and deletion in the Stack can be done only from the top
of the Stack. We can access only the Stack's tops at any given time.
Stacks (cont …)
• The primary operations in the
Stack are as follows:
• Push: Operation to insert a new
element in the Stack is termed
as Push Operation.
• Pop: Operation to remove or
delete elements from the Stack
is termed as Pop Operation.
Some Applications of Stacks:
• The Stack is used as a Temporary Storage Structure for recursive operations.
• Stacks are also utilized to evaluate the arithmetic expressions in different
programming languages.
• Stacks are also helpful in converting infix expressions to postfix expressions.
• We can match parenthesis using Stacks.
• Stacks can be used to reverse a String.
• Stacks are helpful in solving problems based on backtracking.
• We can use Stacks in depth-first search in graph and tree traversal.
• Stacks are also used in Operating System functions.
• Stacks are also used in UNDO and REDO functions in an edit.
4. Queues
• A Queue is a linear data structure similar to a Stack with some
limitations on the insertion and deletion of the elements.
• The insertion of an element in a Queue is done at one end, and the
removal is done at another or opposite end.
• Thus, we can conclude that the Queue data structure follows FIFO
(First In, First Out) principle to manipulate the data elements.
Implementation of Queues can be done using Arrays, Linked Lists, or
Stacks.
• Some real-life examples of Queues are a line at the ticket counter, an
escalator, a car wash, and many more.
Operations of the Queue
• Enqueue: The insertion or Addition of some data elements to the
Queue is called Enqueue. The element insertion is always done with
the help of the rear pointer.
• Dequeue: Deleting or removing data elements from the Queue is
termed Dequeue. The deletion of the element is always done with the
help of the front pointer.
Some Applications of Queues:
• Queues are generally used in the breadth search operation in Graphs.
• Queues are also used in Job Scheduler Operations of Operating Systems,
like a keyboard buffer queue to store the keys pressed by users and a print
buffer queue to store the documents printed by the printer.
• Queues are responsible for CPU scheduling, Job scheduling, and Disk
Scheduling.
• Priority Queues are utilized in file-downloading operations in a browser.
• Queues are also used to transfer data between peripheral devices and the
CPU.
• Queues are also responsible for handling interrupts generated by the User
Applications for the CPU.
Non-Linear Data Structures

• Non-Linear Data Structures are data structures where the data

elements are not arranged in sequential order.

• Types of Non-Linear Data Structures

• Trees
• Graphs
Trees
• A Tree is a Non-Linear Data Structure and a hierarchy containing a
collection of nodes such that each node of the tree stores a value and a
list of references to other nodes (the "children").
• The Tree data structure is a specialized method to arrange and collect
data in the computer to be utilized more effectively.
• It contains a central node, structural nodes, and sub-nodes connected
via edges.
• We can also say that the tree data structure consists of roots, branches,
and leaves connected.
A Tree
Tree classification
• Binary Tree: A Tree data structure where each parent node can have
at most two children is termed a Binary Tree.
• Binary Search Tree: A Binary Search Tree is a Tree data structure
where we can easily maintain a sorted list of numbers.
• AVL Tree: An AVL Tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree where
each node maintains extra information known as a Balance Factor
whose value is either -1, 0, or +1.
• B-Tree: A B-Tree is a special type of self-balancing Binary Search Tree
where each node consists of multiple keys and can have more than
two children.
Some Applications of Trees:
• Trees implement hierarchical structures in computer systems like directories and file
systems.
• Trees are also used to implement the navigation structure of a website.
• Trees are also helpful in decision-making in Gaming applications.
• Trees are responsible for implementing priority queues for priority-based OS scheduling
functions.
• Trees are also responsible for parsing expressions and statements in the compilers of
different programming languages.
• We can use Trees to store data keys for indexing for Database Management System
(DBMS).
• Spanning Trees allows us to route decisions in Computer and Communications Networks.
• Trees are also used in the path-finding algorithm implemented in Artificial Intelligence
(AI), Robotics, and Video Games Applications.
Graphs
• A Graph is another example of a Non-Linear Data Structure comprising a
finite number of nodes or vertices and the edges connecting them.
• The Graphs are utilized to address problems of the real world in which it
denotes the problem area as a network such as social networks, circuit
networks, and telephone networks.
• For instance, the nodes or vertices of a Graph can represent a single user in
a telephone network, while the edges represent the link between them via
telephone.
• The Graph data structure, G is considered a mathematical structure
comprised of a set of vertices, V and a set of edges, E as shown below:
G = (V,E)
A graph
• This figure represents a Graph having seven vertices A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
and ten edges [A, B], [A, C], [B, C], [B, D], [B, E], [C, D], [D, E], [D, F], [E,
F], and [E, G].
 Graphs Classification
• Null Graph: A Graph with an empty set of edges is termed a Null Graph.

• Trivial Graph: A Graph having only one vertex is termed a Trivial Graph.

• Simple Graph: A Graph with neither self-loops nor multiple edges is known as a Simple Graph.

• Non-Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of non-directed edges is known as a Non-Directed Graph.

• Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of the directed edges between the vertices is known as a Directed
Graph.

• Connected Graph: A Graph with at least a single path between every pair of vertices is termed a
Connected Graph.

• Disconnected Graph: A Graph where there does not exist any path between at least one pair of vertices is
termed a Disconnected Graph.

• etc
Some Applications of graph
• Graphs help us represent routes and networks in transportation, travel, and communication
applications.
• Graphs are used to display routes in GPS.
• Graphs also help us represent the interconnections in social networks and other network-
based applications.
• Graphs are utilized in mapping applications.
• Graphs are responsible for the representation of user preference in e-commerce applications.
• Graphs are also used in Utility networks in order to identify the problems posed to local or
municipal corporations.
• Graphs also help to manage the utilization and availability of resources in an organization.
• Graphs are also used to make document link maps of the websites in order to display the
connectivity between the pages through hyperlinks.
• Graphs are also used in robotic motions and neural networks.
 Basic Operations of Data Structures
1. Traversal: Traversing a data structure means accessing each data element exactly once so it
can be administered. For example, traversing is required while printing the names of all the
employees in a department.
2. Search: Search is another data structure operation which means to find the location of one
or more data elements that meet certain constraints. Such a data element may or may not be
present in the given set of data elements. For example, we can use the search operation to
find the names of all the employees who have the experience of more than 5 years.
3. Insertion: Insertion means inserting or adding new data elements to the collection. For
example, we can use the insertion operation to add the details of a new employee the
company has recently hired.
4. Deletion: Deletion means to remove or delete a specific data element from the given list of
data elements. For example, we can use the deleting operation to delete the name of an
employee who has left the job.
5. Sorting: Sorting means to arrange the data elements in either Ascending or Descending order
depending on the type of application.
• For example, we can use the sorting operation to arrange the names of employees in a department in
alphabetical order or estimate the top three performers of the month by arranging the performance of
the employees in descending order and extracting the details of the top three.
 Basic Operations of Data Structures
6. Merge: Merge means to combine data elements of two sorted lists in order to
form a single list of sorted data elements.
7. Create: Create is an operation used to reserve memory for the data elements
of the program. The creation of data structure can take place either during
compile-time and Run-time.
For example, the malloc() function is used in C Language to create data
structure.
8. Selection: Selection means selecting a particular data from the available data.
We can select any particular data by specifying conditions inside the loop.
9. Update: The Update operation allows us to update or modify the data in the
data structure. We can also update any particular data by specifying some
conditions inside the loop, like the Selection operation.
10. Splitting: The Splitting operation allows us to divide data into various subparts
decreasing the overall process completion time.
Understanding the Abstract Data Type
• As per the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a
data structure is an arrangement of information, generally in the
memory, for better algorithm efficiency.
• From the definition, we can conclude that the operations in data
structure include:
• A high level of abstractions like addition or deletion of an item from a list.
• Searching and sorting an item in a list.
• Accessing the highest priority item in a list.
• Whenever the data structure does such operations, it is known as
an Abstract Data Type (ADT).
Abstract data type
• It can be defined as a set of data elements along with the operations
on the data.
• The term "abstract" refers to the fact that the data and the
fundamental operations defined on it are being studied
independently of their implementation.
• It includes what we can do with the data, not how we can do it.
• All the data structures, like an array, linked list, queue, stack, etc., are
examples of ADT.