AL-304 UNIT-2

what is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge.
Human knows things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they
perform various actions in the real world. But how machines do all these
things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can
describe Knowledge representation as following:
o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial
intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking
contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so
that a computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve
the complex real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition
or communicating with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in
artificial intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data
into some database, but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn
from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave intelligently
like a human

What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI
systems:
o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars
contains strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how
to do things.
 o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based
agents is the knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The

Types of knowledge:
Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:
o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge
o It is also known as imperative knowledge.
o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for
knowing how to do something.
 o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:
o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-
knowledge.
4. Heuristic knowledge:
o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed
or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences,
awareness of approaches, and which are good to work but not
guaranteed.
5. Structural knowledge:
o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part
of, and grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

o
AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying
intelligent behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for
displaying intelligent behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
Q.2. Explain the various problems in representing knowledge.
Ans. The major problem in representing knowledge is the problem of
representing the facts that change as well as that do not. This is known
as frame problem In some domains, the only hard part is representing all
the facts. In others, though, figuring out which ones change is non-trivial.
Also there are several limitations of logic as a knowledge
representation scheme .

(i) Logic and theorem proving technique are monotonic in nature. The
derived axioms hold good under all circumstances. Real world is never
monotonic for information obtained is seldom complete.

(ii) Logic does not provide facilities for handling uncertainty. Every
information it deals has to be either correct or incorrect but never
partially.

(iii) Codification of the problem in logic is a tough task and required

considerable effort on the part of the user.

(iv) Even though various techniques do exist for speeding resolution. it

takes considerable amount of time to prove statements in logic.-

(v) One major constraint in logic is that unless you are sure that a
solution exists. the search will not terminate. We will be going on adding
clause after clause but the solution will be still elusive.

(vi) Heuristics, which form the private knowledge of the experts are
difficult to be codified in logic.

For example.
 Marcus was a man — man (Marcus)

The representation captures the critical fact of Marcus being a man, but
if fails to capture some of the information in the English sentence,
namely the notion of past tense.

What is Propositional Logic in Artificial Intelligence?

Propositional logic is a kind of logic whereby the expression that takes
into consideration is referred to as a proposition, which is a statement
that can be either true or false but cannot be both at the same time. In
AI propositions are those facts, conditions, or any other assertion
regarding a particular situation or fact in the world. Propositional logic
uses propositional symbols, connective symbols, and parentheses to
build up propositional logic expressions otherwise referred to as
propositions.
Proposition operators like conjunction (∧), disjunction (∨), negation ¬,
implication →, and biconditional ↔ enable a proposition to be
manipulated and combined in order to represent the underlying logical
relations and rules
Example of Propositions Logic
In propositional logic, well-formed formulas, also called propositions, are
declarative statements that may be assigned a truth value of either true
or false. They are often denoted by letters such as P, Q, and R. Here are
some examples:
• P: In this statement, ‘The sky is blue’ five basic sentence components are
used.
• Q: ‘There is only one thing wrong at the moment we are in the middle of
a rain.”
• R: ‘Sometimes they were just saying things without realizing: “The
ground is wet”’.
All these protasis can be connected by logical operations to create
stamata with greater propositional depth. For instance:
• P∧Q: ”It is clear that the word ‘nice’ for the sentence ‘Saturday is a nice
day’ exists as well as the word ‘good’ for the sentence ‘The weather is
good today. ’”
• P∨Q: “It may probably be that the sky is blue or that it is raining. ”
• ¬P: I was not mindful that the old adage “The sky is not blue” deeply
describes a geek.
Basic Concepts of Propositional Logic
1. Propositions:
A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true or false. For
example:
• “The sky is blue.” (True)
• “It is raining.” (False)
2. Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to form complex propositions from simpler
ones. The primary connectives are:
• AND (∧): A conjunction that is true if both propositions are true.
o Example: “It is sunny ∧ It is warm” is true if both propositions are
true.
• OR (∨): A disjunction that is true if at least one proposition is true.
o Example: “It is sunny ∨ It is raining” is true if either proposition is
true.
• NOT (¬): A negation that inverts the truth value of a proposition.
o Example: “¬It is raining” is true if “It is raining” is false.
• IMPLIES (→): A conditional that is true if the first proposition implies the
second.
o Example: “If it rains, then the ground is wet” (It rains → The
ground is wet) is true unless it rains and the ground is not wet.
• IFF (↔): A biconditional that is true if both propositions are either true
or false together.
 o Example: “It is raining ↔ The ground is wet” is true if both are
true or both are false.
3. Truth Tables:
Truth tables are used to determine the truth value of complex
propositions based on the truth values of their components. They
exhaustively list all possible truth value combinations for the involved
propositions.
4. Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies:
• Tautology: A proposition that is always true, regardless of the truth
values of its components.
o Example: “P ∨ ¬P”
• Contradiction: A proposition that is always false.
o Example: “P ∧ ¬P”
• Contingency: A proposition that can be either true or false depending on
the truth values of its components.
o Example: “P ∧ Q”

Properties of Operators
The logical operators in propositional logic have several important
properties:
1. Commutativity:
• P∧Q≡Q∧P
• P∨Q≡Q∨P
2. Associativity:
• (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
• (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
3. Distributivity:
• P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)
 • P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
4. Identity:
• P ∧ true ≡ P
• P ∨ false ≡ P
5. Domination:
• P ∨ true ≡ true
• P ∧ false ≡ false
6. Double Negation:
• ¬ (¬P) ≡ P
7. Idempotence:
• P∧P≡P
• P∨P≡P

Applications of Propositional Logic in AI

1. Knowledge Representation:
2. Automated Reasoning
3. Problem solving and planning
4. Decision Making
5. Natural Language Processing (NPL)
6. Game Theory and Multi-Agent System
AA

Predicate Logic in AI (Artificial Intelligence)

Last Updated: 8th January, 2024
What is Predicate Logic in AI? Predicate logic in artificial intelligence,
also known as first-order logic or first order predicate logic in AI, is a
formal system used in logic and mathematics to represent and reason
about complex relationships and structures. It plays a crucial role in
knowledge representation, which is a field within artificial intelligence
and philosophy concerned with representing knowledge in a way that
machines or humans can use for reasoning and problem-solving.

Difference between Predicate Logic and Propositional Logic

1. Expressiveness: Propositional logic deals with propositions that are
either true or false and cannot represent the internal structure of
statements. Predicate logic, on the other hand, allows for the
representation of more complex relationships, properties, and quantified
statements, making it more expressive.
2. Variables and Quantifiers: Predicate logic includes variables and
quantifiers, which enable the representation of statements involving "for
all" and "there exists" concepts. Propositional logic lacks these features
and is limited to basic Boolean logic operations.
3. Contextual Understanding: Predicate logic can capture the context
and relationships among entities in a more fine-grained way, which is
essential for many real-world knowledge representation tasks.
Propositional logic, being simpler, is less suited for representing complex
relationships and structured knowledge.
In summary, predicate logic is a powerful tool for knowledge
representation that allows for the representation of complex
relationships, properties, and quantified statements, making it suitable
for expressing and reasoning about a wide range of knowledge, including
that used in artificial intelligence and formal logic. It extends and
generalizes propositional logic by incorporating variables, predicates, and
quantifiers to provide a richer and more expressive language for
representing knowledge.
What is the resolution in AI?
In the field of Resolution In Artificial Intelligence, resolution refers to a
method used to derive logical conclusions from a set of premises. The
resolution method is widely used in automated theorem proving, where
it is applied to prove or disprove theorems using logical reasoning.
What is the refutation principle?
Resolution refutation is a procedure that refutes the satisfiability of a set
of clauses and serves as a proof procedure for proving the validity of
propositional formulas. It involves forming a set of clauses from a
formula, such that the formula is a tautology if and only if the set of
clauses is unsatisfiable.
What is proof by refutation in AI?
A refutation proof is a proof by contradiction. Propositional Resolution is
a refutation proof system. Just one rule of inference - the Resolution
Principle. Propositional Resolution is sound and complete.

Which is a deduction?
A deduction is an amount you subtract from your income when you file
so you don't pay tax on it. By lowering your income, deductions lower
your tax. You need documents to show expenses or losses you want to
deduct. Your tax software will calculate deductions for you and enter
them in the right forms.

What is Theorem proving

Theorem Proving: The Basics of Automated Reasoning

Introduction
Theorem proving is an essential area of research within automated
reasoning, with its ability to prove mathematical theorems automatically
being of immense significance in various domains. Essentially, theorem
proving is a branch of automated reasoning where computers and
algorithms can prove mathematical theorems automatically, thereby
making the process faster, more efficient, and less prone to errors than
manual methods.
This field has gained significant traction with the incredible
advancements in machine learning, cognitive computing, and artificial
intelligence in the past few years. Theorem proving is a vital tool in fields
such as computer science, mathematics, physics, engineering, and
artificial intelligence. This article seeks to explain the basics of theorem
proving for those seeking to learn more about this fascinating field.

What is Theorem Proving? Youtube rgpv official

To put it in simple terms, theorem proving is the ability of computers to
prove theorems automatically using formal logic. It is a sub-discipline of
Automated Reasoning, a branch of artificial intelligence whose primary
task is to automatically prove or disprove mathematical statements and
propositions. Theorem proving has significant advantages over manual
methods of proving a theorem.
In contrast to manual proof methods that involve a complex series of
steps, theorem proving automates the entire process. Automated
reasoning methods are not only faster but also more efficient and
require minimal human intervention. Theorem proving algorithms are
based on formal logic, and they can be used to determine the
correctness of logical statements quickly.
Theorem proving has numerous applications. Its applications extend to
various fields such as computer science and mathematics, and it plays an
essential role in the optimization of complex systems. In computer
science, theorem proving is commonly used to verify the correctness of
algorithms and software systems. In mathematics, theorem proving
helps Automating the tedious process of mathematical proofs.
 Components of Theorem Proving
There are multiple components to theorem proving. Each component
has a vital role in the overall theorem proving process. These
components include:
• Logic: The logic used in theorem proving determines the strength of the
statement or proposition to be proved. For example, the first-order logic
can handle statements involving natural numbers and sets, while second-
order logic can handle statements involving natural numbers and sets
and second-order statements as well.
• Inference Engine: This component is responsible for processing the rules
of inference that are used to create new statements or propositions.
Inference engines implement various rules such as Modus Ponens (If A
implies B and A is true, then B is true) and resolution
• Axioms: These are assumed statements or propositions that are
assumed to be true and are used to build the theorem. Axioms are the
building blocks of mathematical theorems, and are assumed to be true
or self-evident.
• Lemmas: These are intermediate results that are assumed to be true,
and are essential in proving the final result.

Advantages of Theorem Proving

Theorem proving is a powerful technology that has many advantages
over traditional methods of proof. These benefits include the following:
• Automated Process: Theorem proving is an automated process that is
faster and more efficient than manual proof methods.
• Optimization: Theorem proving can help optimize complex systems that
are prone to errors. By identifying and fixing errors automatically,
theorem proving helps improve the effectiveness and efficiency of these
systems.
• Correctness: Theorem proving can prove the correctness of a system or
algorithm and uncover errors that may be hard to identify through
manual methods
 Theorem Proving Techniques
There are multiple techniques used in theorem proving that help
optimize the process. These techniques include:
• Backward Chaining: This is a technique where the theorem prover starts
by assuming the goal and then moves backward trying to derive the
prerequisites of the goal. This technique is widely used in automated
reasoning where the theorem to be proved is known beforehand.
• Forward chaining: This is a technique where the theorem prover starts
with the axioms and moves forward trying to find a conclusion that
substantiates the hypothesis. In this method, the system generates all
possible conclusions based on the axioms until it exhausts all the
possibilities and ultimately settles on the correct conclusion.
• Resolution: In this technique, the theorem prover attempts to prove a
theorem using contradiction. It does this by assuming the negation of
the conjecture and then attempts to prove it is false. The theorem is
considered to be true if the assumption is proved to be false.
Challenges of Theorem Proving
Theorem proving is not without its challenges. Here are some of the
factors that make the task harder:
• Complexity: Theorem proving can be a complex process, particularly
when the statements involved are long and complex.
• Scalability: Theorem proving is challenging to scale, especially if the
number of axioms and lemmas increases, making it hard to maintain or
even optimize its performance.
• Ambiguity: The natural language used to state theorems can sometimes
be ambiguous. This poses a challenge when translating the language into
a formal language that the theorem prover can process and understand.
Conclusion

In conclusion, theorem proving is an essential area in automated reasoning

that has numerous applications in various fields. It is a powerful technology
that can help optimize complex systems, prove the correctness of
algorithms and software, and automate the tedious process of mathematical
proofs. Although the process has its challenges, recent advancements in
artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cognitive computing have
made it possible to overcome these. As such, theorem proving remains a
promising area of research for the future.

Inferencing, monotonic and non -monotonic reasoning watch rgpv

official channel on youtube video.