The ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells:

membrane-bound organelles.
Nucleus, Nucleolus, Nuclear envelope
Structure Function
 Surrounded by the nuclear envelope, a  The envelope separates the Nucleus
double membrane, which contains from the cell, in some places inner and
pores. out membrane fuse allowing ribosomes
 The nucleolus does not have a through. Pores allow larger substances
membrane and contains RNA. (mRNA) to leave, and some (e.g. steroid
 Chromatin is genetic material, wound hormones) may enter.
up DNA around histone protein. Spread  The Nucleolus is where ribosome
out when the cell isn’t dividing and production occurs.
condenses into coils of chromosomes  Chromosomes contain the organism’s
when it is. genes.

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Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Structure Function
 A system of membrane, within which  It is the intracellular transport system
have fluid-filles cavities, called for the cell as cisternae channel
cisternae, that are continuous with the substances within the cell.
nuclear membrane.  It has a large surface area for
 It is coated in ribosomes. ribosomes. The proteins made are
passed through membrane into
cisternae and then moved to the Golgi
apparatus

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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Structure Function
 A system of membranes with fluid-filles  Contains enzymes that catalyse Lipid
cavities (cisternae) that are continuous metabolism:
with the nuclear membrane. - Synthesis of cholesterol
 It has no ribosomes on its surface. - Synthesis of lipids/phospholipids
 for the cell
- Synthesis of steroid hormones
 It is involved with synthesis, absorption,
transport of lipids from the gut.

Golgi apparatus
Structure Function
 It is made up of a stack of membrane-  Proteins are modified here:
bound flattened sacs. - Adding sugar mols to make
 Materials are brought to and from by glycoproteins.
vesicles. - Adding lipid mols to make
lipoproteins.
- Being folded into a 3D shape.
 They are then packaged into vesicles and
“pinched off”:
- Either stored in cell or
- Moved to plasma membrane to be
incorporated to membrane or
secreted/exported out of the cell,

Mitochondria
Structure Function
 Can be spherical, rod-shaped or  The site of ATP production in aerobic
branched (2-5 um long). respiration.
 Double-membrane bound with a fluid-  Self-replicating, more can be made to
filled space between. increase energy.
 Inner membrane is highly folded into  Abundant where metabolic activity
cristae. takes place:
 The inner part of the mitochondrion is - Liver cells.
the fluid-filled matrix. - Synapses between neurones where
neurotransmitters are synthesised
and released.

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Chloroplasts
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Structure Function
 Relatively large organelles, 4-10 um.  The site of photosynthesis, first stage
 Found only in plant cells and some where chlorophyll traps light in grana
protoctists. and H20 split to provide H+ ions.
 Double membrane bound or by an  The second stage is where H reduces
envelope. CO2 using energy from ATP, making
  The inner membrane is continuous and carbs, and occurs in stroma.
has sacks of flattened membrane sacs  Chloroplasts are abundant in leaves,
(thylakoids) which contain chlorophyll. especially in the palisade mesophyll
 Each stack is a granum and intergranal layer.
lamellae connect them.
 They contain loops of DNA and starch
grains.

Vacuole
Structure Function
 Contains fluid and is surrounded by the  Only plant cells have large permanent
membrane called the tonoplast. ones.
 Filled with water, solutes which
maintains cell stability as it pushes
against the cell wall making it turgid.
 When all plant cells are turgid it helps
support the plant.

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Lysosomes
Structure Function
 Small bags that are made from the  They separate the powerful hydrolytic
Golgi and surrounded by a single enzymes from the rest of the cell.
membrane.  They can engulf and digest old
 Contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes, organelles and parts of the cell and
digestive. return it for reuse.
 Abundant in phagocytic cells like
neutrophils and macrophages that
ingest pathogens.

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Cilia BY undulipodia
 Structure Functions
 They are protrusions from the cell and  Epithelial cells lining airways have cilia
are surround by the cell surface that beat and move bands of mucus.
membrane (plasma membrane).  Nearly all cell types have on cilium as
 They all contain microtubules and are an antenna that contains receptors and
formed from centrioles. allows the cell to detect signals.
 The undulipodia is only found in one
human cells, spermatozoon and allows
it to move.

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Ribosomes
Structure Function
 Small spherical organelles, 20nm.  They are bound to the exterior of the
 Made up of ribosomal RNA. RER for synthesising proteins to be
 Made in nucleolus as two subunits exported out of the cell.
which pass through envelope and then  Those free are the site of protein
combine in the cytoplasm. assembly, primarily, for those to be
 Some remain free and some attach to used in the cell.
RER.

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Centrioles
Structure Function
 Made up of two bundles of  The spindle, before cell division,
microtubules perpendicular to one comes from threads of tubulin from
another. these.
 The tubules are mad of tubulin protein  Chromosomes then attach to middle
subunits and arranged in cylinders.
of spindle and motor proteins walk
along tubulin threads pulling
chromosomes apart.
 Also involved in forming cilia:
- Before cilia are formed, they
multiply and line up between
 - Microtubules sprout from
centrioles forming a
cilium/undulipodium.
 Usually absent in plants but can be
found in unicellular algae.

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Cytoskeleton
Structure Function
 It is a network of protein structures in  Microfilaments support the cell, move
the cytoplasm consisting of: the cell, keep stable shape and give it
- Rod-like microfilaments made of mechanical strength.
actin subunits, 7nm in diameter.  They form a track and motor proteins
- Intermediate filaments 10nm. drag organelles across.
- Straight cylindrical microtubules,  They form spindle before division.
made of tubulin, 18-30 nm.  Make up cilia and undulipodium.
- Cytoskeletal motor proteins  Intermediate filaments:
(myosins, kinesins, dyneins). - Anchor the nucleus.
Molecular motors and enzymes, - Extend between cells, and special
they bind to a site which is their junctions, allowing cell-cell
energy source as hydrolysis of ATP signalling and allowing cells to
occurs. adhere to a basement membrane
which keeps tissues stable.

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Cellulose cell wall

Structure Function
 In plants is on the outside of the  It is strong and prevents turgid cells
membrane and made from bundles of from bursting.
cellulose fibres.  Provides: strength and support,
maintains shape, contributes to
support whole plant, permeable and
allows solutions through.
 FUNGI have chitin cell walls.