Thriving and Contribution among Emerging

Adults in Ghana

Nora Wiium

Abstract The Positive Youth Development (PYD) perspective proposes that the
experience of internal and external assets is associated with thriving among young
people and contribution to the self and society. In this chapter, the experience of
different internal and external assets was assessed together with associations with
thriving or positive outcomes among 483 emerging adults in Ghana. The results
confirm previous findings regarding the relationship between the assets, thriving
and contribution. However, the majority of the Ghanaian participants had not expe-
rienced external assets such as support and constructive use of time. Since both
internal and external assets are crucial for positive development, initiatives and pro-
grammes that make these assets accessible to the youth can be an essential step
towards self- and national development in Ghana.

Empowering young people to participate in their contexts can be an essential step

towards self- and national development. With a proportion of more than 65% under
30 years, Ghana has been referred to as a youthful population (United Nations,
2015). Young people in Ghana therefore represent potential human resources for the
development of the nation. This is especially true for emerging adults who are tran-
sitioning into adult roles that will directly impact national development. Current
initiatives in Ghana portray a renewed commitment by the government to protect
the rights of young people and to enable them contribute to national development
(Ghana Ministry of Youth and Sports, 2010). Consistent with the Positive Youth
Development (PYD) perspective, Ghanaian youth can contribute to national devel-
opment when they are thriving (Benson, 2007; Lerner, Alberts, Jelicic, & Smith,
2006). However, they will first have to exhibit positive outcomes such as social and
academic competence, self-regulatory and leadership skills. Research using the
PYD perspective has mainly focused on Western contexts. In this book chapter, this
perspective is used to assess and ultimately inform how thriving and contribution
can be facilitated among Ghanaian youth.

N. Wiium (*)
Faculty of Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
e-mail: [email protected]; http://www.uib.no/personer/Nora.Wiium

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 75

R. Dimitrova (ed.), Well-Being of Youth and Emerging Adults across Cultures,
Cross-Cultural Advancements in Positive Psychology 12,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68363-8_6
76 N. Wiium

The Positive Youth Development Conceptual Framework

A central principle of the PYD is that all young people have strengths. Thus, young
people are conceptualised as problem solvers, effective contributors and equal part-
ners in the development of their communities (Lerner et al., 2006). Within the PYD,
an alignment of the strengths of young people with the resources in their contexts
such as home, school and community, will lead to the development of positive out-
comes (see Fig. 1). Development is described as contextual, where young people are
both products and producers of their contexts.
Benson (1990, 2007) suggest several strengths and contextual resources that
have been developed and validated mainly in the US. Four categories of youth
strengths or internal assets have been proposed: Commitment to learning, Positive
values, Social competencies and Positive identity. Similarly, four categories of con-
textual resources or external assets have been suggested: Support, Empowerment,
Boundaries and expectations, and Constructive use of time. The internal assets rep-
resent the intrapersonal competencies, skills, and self-perceptions of young people
that develop during interaction with their contexts, while the external assets repre-
sent the environmental, contextual, and relational features of the socializing systems
of young people (Benson, 2007). The developmental assets reflect assets in five
ecological contexts: personal (self), social, family, school and community. The
more assets young people have, the better the chances of positive development. This
has been described as the “vertical pileup” where an important goal of PYD initia-
tives is to enable young people to experience many of the developmental assets.
There is also a “horizontal stacking”, where young people are empowered to experi-
ence developmental assets aross many contexts. Furthermore, in initiatives that pro-
mote “vertical pileup” and “horizontal stacking”, the focus is on all young people

Demographics
Gender
Age
Internal assets
Commitment to learning
Positive values
Social competencies
Positive identity
Thriving indicators
School success
Help others
Values diversity
External assets Maintains good health Youth
Support Exhibits leadership contribution
Empowerment Resists danger
Boundaries & Delays gratification
Exectations Overcomes adversity
Constructive use of time

Fig. 1 The conceptual framework based on developmental assets and thriving indicators (Benson
1990, 2007) (Note: “Resists danger” as a thriving indicator was not assessed in the present chapter
as it overlaps largely with the “Resistance skills” item in Social competencies (internal asset))
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 77

(i.e., “developmental breath”) and not just those at risk (Benson, 2007). The validity
of the developmental assets has been discussed in previous studies (e.g., Leffert
et al., 1998).
In the promotion of positive development, an active interaction between young
people and their contexts is emphasised, as this constitutes an adaptive developmen-
tal regulation process where thriving and contribution to the self and society are
facilitated (Brandtstädter, 2006; Lerner et al., 2011). This active role of young peo-
ple in the interaction with their contexts is an important theoretical theme in PYD
and the focus in one variant of the developmental systems theories called “action
theories” (Brandtstädter & Lerner, 1999). Young people who adopt an active role in
the individual-context interaction are able to seek out, acquire the necessary
resources and use them to achieve a desired goal. Thus, they become producers of
their own development (Lerner, 1982).
Within the PYD perspective, thriving or positive outcomes have been measured
in several ways including the 5Cs (competence, confidence, connection, character
and caring) (Lerner, Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner, 2005; Pittman, 1999) and thriv-
ing indicators such as school success and leadership (Benson, 2007). Contribution
has been assessed as an ideology or an action (Lerner et al., 2005). The experience
of the developmental assets has been associated with positive outcomes, such as
engagement in physical activity (Bleck & DeBate, 2016), academic achievement
(Scales, Benson, Roehlkepartain, Sesma, & Dulmen, 2006) and thriving outcomes
such as school success, leadership, valuing diversity, physical health, helping oth-
ers, and overcoming adversity (Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000). Thriving or
positive outcomes in turn has been associated with community contributions (Lerner
et al., 2005; Lewin-Bizan, Bowers, & Lerner, 2010) and civic engagement (Sherrod,
2007). In the present chapter, Benson’s (2007) thriving indicators are used as mea-
sures of positive outcomes, while the contribution indicators are assessed as actions.

 he Ghanaian Context, Youth Policy and Positive

T
Development Initiatives

Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana represents one of the most politically
stable countries in West Africa since its transition to multi-party democracy in 1992.
During the last population census in 2010, more than 60% of the country’s total
population of 25 million was under age 30 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). Ghana
has therefore been referred to as a youthful population. Culturally, Hofstede (2012)
categorized Ghana as collective, where the individual tends to define him or herself
in terms of the social and collective aspects of the self-concept. With the family as
an important prototypical relationship, family members with their different positons
and roles tend to care for each other, cooperate and work towards common goals
(Kim-Prieto & Eid, 2004; LeFebvre & Franke, 2013).
Economically, Ghana achieved a record high Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
growth of 14% in 2011 (International Monetary Fund, IMF, 2015), which was
78 N. Wiium

attributed to the petroleum exploitation. However, economic growth in recent years

has been rather moderate, and the 2015 rate was 3.5%. Despite such moderate eco-
nomic growth, many young people in Ghana continue to face social and economic
challenges such as unemployment, poverty, limited access to education as well as
limited access to social and economic participation, with evidence of gender
inequality (Amankrah, 2012; Awumbila, 2006); women more than man have limited
access to opportunities, capabilities and empowerment programmes. The potential
of young people in Ghana, and especially that of young women thus appears to be
largely untapped.
Like young people in many developing countries, the challenges that Ghanaian
youth face have consequences on their personal, economic and social development.
In 2010, Ghana adopted a national youth policy that had as a theme: “Towards an
empowered youth, impacting positively on national development”. Several priority
areas were emphasised including education and skills training, youth and employ-
ment, mentoring, sports and recreation, youth, patriotism and volunteerism. These
areas were emphasized as strategies and programmes to be implemented to empower
Ghanaian youth and to ensure among others, their active contribution to the eco-
nomic, social, and cultural advancement of themselves, their families, and the nation
as a whole (Ghana Ministry of Youth and Sports, 2010). Further in 2014, an action
plan was launched for the youth policy. The implementation was foreseen in col-
laboration with different stakeholders and organisations such as parents, the educa-
tional system, non-governmental, religious and community-based organizations as
well as other private organisations.

The Present Chapter

The prioritised areas in the Ghana national youth policy represents youth strengths
and contextual resources that correspond considerably to Benson’s (1990, 2007)
internal and external assets. Thus, if the implementation of the prioritised areas is
followed through, young people in Ghana must to some extent experience assets
similar to Benson’s developmental assets. Ghana’s status as a collective culture may
influence the extent to which some external assets are experienced; it is possible that
external assets that deal with support will be experienced more often compared to
other assets. In Ghana, because youth initiatives are often implemented within for-
mal settings (Sonnenberg, 2012), young people in the educational system including
university students, should benefit most from the outcome of the initiatives; and
consistent with the PYD perspective, these students should also be thriving and
contributing to self and society.
The goal of the study reported in the present chapter is to assess Ghanaian emerg-
ing adults’ experience of developmental (internal and external) assets and their rela-
tions to thriving indicators (Benson, 2007). Furthermore, the association between
thriving and contribution is examined. As an additional aim, the associations of age
and gender with the developmental assets, thriving and contribution are assessed. In
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 79

so doing, the following research questions are investigated: (1)Which developmen-

tal assets are reported by Ghanaian emerging adults? (2) How do developmental
assets relate to the number of thriving indicators reported among Ghanaian emerg-
ing adults? (3) How do the number of thriving indicators relate to the number of
contribution indicators reported among Ghanaian emerging adults?

Method

Participants and Procedure

The present study is based on a cross-sectional data collected from 483 first year
students during the 2014/2015 academic year at the University of Ghana; 61% of
the participants were females. The age range was 16–28, with a mean age of 19.57.
Participants were studying at different departments (i.e., Psychology, Political sci-
ence, Geography and Social work) at the School of Social Sciences. About 57%
lived with both parents, 25% with their mothers, 7% with their fathers, and 11%
with others that were not specified. Concerning religion, 53% were Pentecostals,
13% Protestants, 13% Catholics, 5% Muslims and 15% were from other religious
backgrounds that were not specified. Sixty six percent of the participants reported
that the highest educational level of their father was vocational, technical, polytech-
nic or university while 44% of the mothers had similar level of education.
Data were collected before or after a lecture and lasted for about 40 min each
time during a 1-week period. Translation of the original English questionnaire was
not necessary as English is the main language of instruction in Ghana. Participants
were informed about the goals and procedure of the study and informed consent was
sought from all of them before data collection. Research assistants from the
Department of Psychology, University of Ghana administered the survey.
Participants received a pen as an incentive. The study was approved by the Ethics
Committee for Humanities at the University of Ghana.

Measures

Internal and External Assets Participants were asked to indicate the extent to
which they had experienced different internal and external assets. For the responses
of all the items, a 4-point Likert scale was used, ranging from 1 (not at all or rarely)
to 4 (extremely or almost always). Benson (2007) proposed 40 assets, yet in the
Developmental Assets Profile (Search Institute, 2007) assets that address multiple
contexts (for example home, school and neighbourhood) have been reformulated so
that the contexts are addressed separately. The total number of assets that were
examined among the Ghanaian sample was 51 items. A list of all the internal and
external assets that were studied can be found in Tables 1a and 1b, respectively.
80 N. Wiium

Table 1a Frequency distribution of internal assets among Ghanaian emerging adults

Not at Very Total
all or Somewhat or or Extremely or
Internal assets rarely sometimes often almost always n %
Commitment to learning
 I am eager to do well at 5.2 5.0 15.2 74.6 480 100
the university
 I enjoy learning 1.7 18.1 37.9 42.3 480 100
 I am trying to learn new 15.2 6.2 29.3 49.1 481 100
things
 I am encouraged to try to .6 6.0 34.0 59.4 480 100
do things that might be
good for me
 I do my assignment .8 7.5 27.7 64.0 480 100
 I care about my university 2.1 9.8 32.1 56.0 480 100
 I enjoy reading 1.7 16.7 37.1 44.6 480 100
Positive values
 I think it is important to .4 3.3 24.0 72.3 480 100
help other people
 I believe that everybody .6 2.7 11.7 85.0 480 100
should be treated equally
 I stand up for what I 1.5 7.3 18.3 72.9 480 100
believe in
 I tell the truth even when 3.1 22.7 40.2 34.0 480 100
it is not easy
 I take responsibility for .8 11.0 37.7 50.4 480 100
what I do
 I tell other people what I 1.3 12.1 31.5 55.2 480 100
believe in
 I stay away from tobacco, 6.0 4.6 11.3 78.1 480 100
alcohol, and other drugs
Social competencies
 I plan ahead and make 2.1 11.3 35.2 51.5 480 100
good choices
 I build friendships with 5.0 17.3 39.2 38.5 480 100
other people
 I accept people who are 1.3 14.2 34.6 50.0 480 100
different from me
 I am able to resist bad 1.9 10.4 32.3 55.4 480 100
influences or avoid things
that are dangerous
 I am able to resolve 2.9 23.8 40.5 32.8 479 100
conflicts without anyone
getting hurt
 I am sensitive to the needs 1.7 9.6 34.2 54.5 479 100
and feeling of others
(continued)
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 81

Table 1a (continued)
Not at Very Total
all or Somewhat or or Extremely or
Internal assets rarely sometimes often almost always n %
 I express my feelings in 1.9 15.4 40.8 41.9 480 100
proper ways
Positive identity
 I feel I have control of my 3.3 16.3 36.3 44.2 480 100
life and future
 I feel good about myself 1.0 11.0 33.5 54.4 480 100
 I feel that ‘my life has a 1.5 4.6 14.4 79.6 480 100
purpose’
 I feel good about my 1.3 4.8 18.8 75.2 480 100
future

Table 1b Frequency distribution of external assets among Ghanaian emerging adults

Not at Somewhat Very Extremely or Total
all or or or almost
External assets rarely sometimes often always n %
Support
 I have a family that gives me 1.5 12.1 27.2 59.3 481 100
love and support
 I ask my parents for advice 14.6 39.9 24.3 21.2 481 100
 I have support from other 20.2 35.8 24.3 19.8 481 100
adults other than my parents
 I have good neighbours who 19.0 42.1 25.0 14.0 480 100
care about me
 I have a department that 10.2 32.4 30.9 26.5 479 100
provides a caring and
encouraging environment
 My parents are actively .8 8.1 18.1 73.0 481 100
involved in helping me
succeed at the university
 I have parents who are good 2.7 16.6 29.1 51.6 481 100
at talking to me about things
Empowerment
 I feel valued and appreciated 2.1 21.4 41.8 34.7 481 100
by others
 I am given useful roles and 4.2 24.5 41.0 30.4 481 100
responsibilities
 I am included in family tasks 6.0 26.0 36.9 31.0 480 100
and decisions
 I feel safe and secure at the 4.0 23.5 39.7 32.6 481 100
university
 I have a safe neighbourhood 4.2 23.1 38.5 34.3 481 100
 I feel safe and secure at home 1.2 11.6 24.1 63.0 481 100
(continued)
82 N. Wiium

Table 1b (continued)
Not at Somewhat Very Extremely or Total
all or or or almost
External assets rarely sometimes often always n %
Expectations and boundaries
 I have a family that knows 1.5 15.0 29.9 53.6 481 100
where I am and what I am
doing
 I have a department that 5.0 20.0 38.5 36.5 480 100
provides clear rules and
consequences
 I have neighbours who help 18.8 32.2 31.0 18.0 478 100
watch out for me
 I have adults who are good 2.7 19.0 32.3 46.0 480 100
role models for me
 I have friends who set good 3.5 23.3 42.5 30.6 480 100
examples for me
 I have lecturers who urge me 6.0 19.8 38.3 35.8 480 100
to develop and achieve
 I have a family that provides 4.4 14.6 34.6 46.5 480 100
me with clear rules
 I have a department that 5.6 22.7 42.5 29.2 480 100
enforces rules fairly
 I have parents who urge me 3.5 6.9 21.5 68.1 479 100
to do well at the university
Constructive use of time
 I am involved in creative 30.3 23.6 14.8 31.3 479 100
things such as music, theatre
or other arts
 I spend time every week in 42.3 30.0 13.1 14.6 480 100
sports, hobby clubs, or
organization at the university
or my community
 I am involved in a church, 17.5 20.6 22.7 39.2 480 100
mosque, or other religious
group one or more hours
every week
 I go out 2 or fewer nights per 59.3 20.0 8.6 12.1 479 100
week with friends “with
nothing special to do”

Thriving and Contribution Indicators Benson (2007) proposed eight thriving

indicators that young people exhibit when they experience the internal and external
assets; seven indicators were examined in the present chapter. For contribution,
three items were used to assess contribution to self-development, family and com-
munity. The indicators and their definitions can be found in Table 2.
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 83

Table 2 Proportion of Ghanaian emerging adults reporting on seven thriving and three contribution
indicators
Total Gender
Thriving indicators Definition sample Boys Girls
Succeeds in school Gets mostly As on report card 15.3 13.7 16.4
Helps others Helps friends or neighbours one or more 78.7 82.6 76.2
hours per week
Values diversity Places high importance on getting to know 38.5 40.8 37.1
people of other racial/ethnic group
Maintains good Pay attention to healthy nutrition and 74.1 75.8 73.0
health exercise
Exhibits good Has been a leader of a group or 55.8 63.4 51.0
leadershipa organization in the last 12 months
Delays gratification Saves money for something special rather 84.5 83.0 85.4
than spending it all right away
Overcomes adversity Does not give up when things get difficulty 85.5 86.3 85.0
Contribution indicators
Contribution to selfb Main work gives skills that can be used to 63.3 69.1 59.7
get a better job to make more income
Contribution to Helps family one or more hours a week 91.6 87.0 94.6
familyc
Contribution to Volunteer one or more hours a week to 48.0 47.8 48.1
community make community a better place
N = 482; 187 boys and 295 girls
“Resists danger” as a thriving indicator was not assessed in the present study
a
Chi square analysis of gender difference in Exhibit good leadership, significant at p ˂.01
b
Chi square analysis of gender difference in Contribution to self, significant at p ˂ .05
c
Chi square analysis of gender difference in Helps family, significant at p ˂ .01

Statistical Analyses

Frequency distribution and descriptive analyses were run on each of the items that
were used to assess the developmental assets, thriving and contribution. Composite
variables reflecting the number of indicators that were reported for the four catego-
ries of the internal assets, the four categories of the external assets, thriving and
contribution were created, and frequency distributions were run on each composite
variable. Pearson’s correlation was used to describe bivariate associations among
study variables. Linear regressions were carried out to examine how the internal and
external assets were associated with the number of reported thriving and contribu-
tion indicators (as standardized scores); because not all values of Skewness and
Kurtosis fell within normal distribution range. Gender differences and the influence
of age were assessed in all analyses. In preliminary analysis, findings from linear
regression analyses using the original scores of thriving and contribution indicators
were comparable to findings from analyses using the standardized scores. In the fol-
lowing results section, findings from analysis using the original scores are reported.
84 N. Wiium

Results

Experience of Developmental Assets

Internal Assets For the seven items that were used to assess the Commitment to
learning category, each of them had been experienced often or almost always by at
least 78% of the participants. Similarly, each of the seven items that were used to
assess Positive values had been experienced often or almost always by at least 74%
of the participants. For Social competencies, each of the seven items had been expe-
rienced often or almost always by at least 73% of the participants, while each of the
four items that were used to assess Positive identity had been experienced often or
almost always by at least 80% of the participants (for details, see Table 1a).
Cronbach’s alphas for the four internal asset categories ranged from .69 to .80.
External Assets For the seven items that were used to assess the Support category,
four had been experienced often or almost always by at least 57% of the partici-
pants. For Empowerment, each of the six items had been experienced often or
almost always by at least 68% of the participants. Eight of the nine items that were
used to assess Expectations and boundaries were experienced often or almost
always by at least 71% of the participants. Only one of the four assets that were used
to assess Constructive use of time had been experienced often or almost always by
most of the participants; the remaining assets were experienced by less than 50% of
the participants (for details, see Table 1b). The Cronbach’s alpha for Constructive
use of time was quite low (.46), while for the other three external asset categories the
Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .61 to .76. Cronbach’s alphas for the developmental
(external and internal) assets in the present study were comparable to those observed
by Scales and colleagues (2000) among six ethnic groups in the US (ranging from
the .60s to the .80s).
Developmental Assets by Age and Gender Age was not associated with any of
the developmental assets (Table 3). In findings not presented in tables, about 44%
and 50% of male and female participants, respectively, had experienced all seven
items of Commitment to learning, often or almost always. For Positive values, about
57% and 60% of male and female participants, respectively, had experienced all
seven items often or almost always. Forty seven percent of each gender had experi-
enced all seven items of Social competencies, often or almost always. As to Positive
identity, about 79% and 72% of male and female participants, respectively, had
experienced all four items, often or almost always. For each of the four categories
of the external assets, less than 40% of both male and female participants had expe-
rienced all the items that were used in the assessments. No significant gender differ-
ence was observed.
Table 3 Descriptive statistics and correlations for study variables
Study variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1. Agea −.18** .01 .03 .05 −.01 −.03 .04 −.08 .09 −.09 .11* .12* .05 .02 −.02 .09 −.01 −.05 .09
2. Gender – .15** .07 .07 .01 .01 .11* .03 −.07 .06 −.10* −.03 −.03 −.12** .03 −.02 −.10* .16** −.00
3. Commitment – .60** .50** .52** .32** .39** .40** .22** .20** .17** .24** .18** .14** .13** .14** .07 .20** .15**
to learn
4. Positive values – .62** .51** .27** .38** .37** .28** .14** .17** .18** .14** .09 .20** .13** .14** .12** .12*
5. Social – .58** .28** .21** .42** .26** .05 .25** .36** .18** .09 .09 .19** .12** .23** .18**
competencies
6. Positive identity – .27** .34** .38** .24** .23** .19** .24** .17** .14** .12** .23** .11* .14** .12**
7. Support – .53** .54** .28** .08 .07 .18** .11* .14** .05 .03 .07 .11* .08
8. Empowerment – .52** .33** .09* .18** .20** .08 .15** .05 .09 .07 .15** .14**
9. Expectations – .32** .10* .18** .23** .15** .18** .02 .15** .10* .22** .12*
and boundaries
10. Constructive – .03 .15** .18** .06 .28** .06 .05 .05 .09* .18**
use of time
11. School – .02 −.16** .11* .02 .09* .10* .04 .06 −.02
success
12. Helps others – .21** .13** .07 .06 .05 .19** 32** .42**
13. Values diversity – .15** .03 −.12 .04 .08 .17** .16**
14. Maintains good – .05 .24** .16** .07 .11* .14**
health
15. Exhibits – .08 .19** .07 −.03 .23**
leadership
16. Delays – .30** .12** .13** .08
gratification
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Study variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
17. Overcomes – .08 .09 −.01
adversity
18. Contribution to – −.03 .19**
self
19. Contribution to – .14**
family
20. Contribution to –
community
Range 1–2 0–7 0–7 0–7 0–4 0–7 0–6 0–9 0–4 1–8 1–5 1–5 1–2 1–2 1–2 1–2 1–2 1–5 1–5
Mean 1.61 6.00 6.19 5.77 3.54 4.42 4.46 6.71 1.55 5.98 2.69 3.82 1.74 1.56 1.84 1.86 1.63 3.78 1.98
S.D. 0.49 1.33 1.28 1.61 0.97 1.62 1.59 2.12 1.12 1.57 1.28 1.24 0.44 0.50 0.36 0.35 0.48 1.29 1.24
*p ˂ .05; **p ˂ .01 (two tailed)
a
Age – (range: 16–28; M = 19.57, SD = 1.64)
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 87

Thriving and Contribution Indicators

Concerning thriving, five indicators were reported by most participants (at least
56%): Helps others, Maintains good health, Exhibit good leadership, Delays grati-
fication and Overcomes adversity. This is true for both males and females. Gender
difference was only observed for Exhibit good leadership where male participants
were more likely than their female counterparts to report that they had been a leader
of a group or organization in the last 12 months, χ2(1, 477) = 6.99, p ˂ .01. Only
1.4% of the participants reported all seven indicators of thriving. For contribution,
at least 60% of each gender group had contributed to self or family, and about 48%
of both male and female participants had contributed to their community. Gender
difference was observed for Contribution to self, where male participants were more
likely to report that their main work gives them skills that can be used to get a better
job to make more income χ2(1, 471) = 4.24, p ˂ .05. In contrast, female participants
were more likely to help their family one or more hours a week χ2(1, 478) = 8.53,
p ˂ .01 (for details, see Table 2). About 25% of the participants reported all three
indictors of contribution.

Correlation Among Study Variables

Positive correlations were found among the asset categories with the highest corre-
lation (r = .62, p ˂ .01) registered between Positive values and Social competencies.
Among the thriving indicators, the highest correlation (r = .30, p ˂ .01) was between
Delays gratification and Overcomes adversity, while for the contribution indicators,
the highest correlation (r = .19, p ˂ .01) was between Contribution to self and
Contribution to community. Overall, positive correlations were observed between
different asset categories and the seven thriving indicators (see Table 3); the highest
correlation (r = .36, p ˂ .01) was between Social competencies and Values diversity.
Positive correlations were also largely observed between asset categories and three
contribution indicators with the highest correlation (r = .23, p ˂ .01) between Social
competencies and Contribution to family. Furthermore, several positive correlations
were observed between the thriving and contribution indicators; the highest correla-
tion (r = .42, p ˂ .01) was found between Helps others (indicating friends and neigh-
bours) and Contribution to community. No statistically significant correlation was
found between two thriving indicators (succeeds in school and overcomes adversity)
and the three contribution indicators.
88 N. Wiium

Predicting Thriving and Contribution

In linear regression analyses, composite variables reflecting the number of thriving

indictors and contribution were used as outcomes (Table 4). In the prediction of
thriving, age and gender explained only 1% of the variance in the outcome, in step
1. In step 2, the internal assets explained a significant proportion of variance in the
thriving scores, R2 = .21, F(6, 461) = 21.71, p < .001, whereas the external assets
only explained 1% of the variance in step 3. In step 3, when all the variables were
included, only Positive identity (an internal asset category) increased with the num-
ber of thriving indicators that were reported, β = .19, t(467) = 3.47, p < .01.
Commitment to learning and Positive values (also internal asset categories) appeared
to increase with thriving, although the levels of statistical significance for both vari-
ables were borderline (p = .051 and p = .058, respectively). Social competencies
(the remaining internal asset category) together with the four external asset catego-
ries were not statistically significantly associated with the outcome. Age increased
with the number of thriving indictors that were reported but the influence of gender
was not statistically significant (see Table 4).
In the prediction of contribution, the number of thriving indicators increased
with the number of contribution indicators, β = .35, t(467) = 8.10, p < .001 at step
2, when age and gender were controlled for, and explained a significant proportion
of the variance in the contribution scores, R2 = .12, F(3, 464) = 21.99, p < .001 (see
Table 5). Age and gender were not significantly associated with the number of con-
tribution indicators that were reported.

Table 4 Summary of linear regression analyses predicting thriving

Step study variables Change in R2 Cumulative R2
1. Age, Gender .01 .01
2. Internal assets .21 .22
3. External assets .01 .24
B SE B β t p
Demographics
 Age .08 .04 .09 2.17 .030
 Gender −.17 .12 −.06 −1.36 .174
Internal assets
 Commitment to learn .12 .06 .11 1.96 .051
 Positive values .12 .06 .11 1.90 .058
 Social competencies .06 .05 .07 1.20 .229
 Positive identity .27 .08 .19 3.47 .001
External assets
 Support .05 .05 .06 1.06 .291
 Empowerment −.01 .05 −.01 −.24 .807
 Expectations and boundaries .04 .04 .06 1.14 .255
 Constructive use of time .09 .06 .07 1.60 .111
The internal assets, external assets and thriving are examined as the number of reported indicators
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 89

Table 5 Summary of linear regression analyses predicting contribution

Step study variables Change in R2 Cumulative R2
1. Age, Gender .00 .00
2. Thriving indicators .12 .12
B SE B β t p
Demographics
 Age −.01 .02 −.01 −.28 .783
 Gender .04 .08 .02 .49 .628
Thriving indicators .21 .03 .35 8.10 .000
Thriving and Contribution are composite variables reflecting number of reported indicators

Discussion

General Findings

In general, most of the participants had experienced different internal assets.

However, for the external assets, more than 50% had not experienced several of the
Support and Constructive use of time assets. Age and gender were not significantly
associated with the developmental assets. Several thriving indicators were reported
by both genders; gender difference was only found in the indicator assessing
Exhibits good leadership where male participants were more likely to report this
indicator. Most participants also reported that they had contributed to self-­
development and the family but less than 50% had contributed to the community.
Male participants were more likely to contribute to self-development while female
participants were more likely to offer help to their family. While several positive
correlations were found between the asset categories and the thriving indicators,
only Positive identity and to some extent Commitment to learning and Positive val-
ues, increased (in terms of number) with the number of thriving indicators that were
reported. The number of thriving indicators in turn increased with the number of the
contribution indicators that were reported.

 he Experience of Developmental Assets and Predictions

T
of Thriving and Contribution

Although Benson’s (2007) developmental assets were developed using US samples,

the assets have also been reported among young people in several non-US contexts,
such as Japan, Lebanon, Albania, Bangladesh and the Philippines (Scales, 2011). In
the present study, several of the assets were reported by the Ghanaian participants,
thereby extending the universality of the developmental assets. Participants were
more likely to experience internal assets compared to external assets. Scales (2011)
found Constructive use of time (an external asset category) to be one of the least
90 N. Wiium

experienced assets. This was also observed in the present study; besides being
involved in church, mosque or other religions activities, the majority had been
involved in little or no creative activities such as music or other arts, and sports.
While this is alarming, it could also be that Ghanaian youth engage in other creative
activities that were not captured in the developmental assets. Nonetheless, because
sports, music and arts are some of the important activities through which positive
youth development can be promoted, in the implementation of the initiatives pro-
posed by the Ghana youth policy, such activities can be stimulated among Ghanaian
youth with the universities and religious groups to which most of the participants
were affiliated, serving as relevant avenues.
Besides Constructive use of time, majority of the participants reported that they
had experienced little or no support from parents, neighbours or other adults.
Considering the collectivistic nature of the Ghanaian culture (Kim-Prieto & Eid,
2004), where group decision making and supporting others are considered impor-
tant, these findings may seem surprising. However, it could also be that the high
educational status of the participants causes them to be rather perceived as benefac-
tors. In Ghana and other African countries, it is not uncommon for parents, siblings
and even extended family members to expect financial support (Aboderin, 2004) as
well as informational and social support from individuals, such as university stu-
dents who are often considered as individuals who have progressed in life. For
emerging adults such as the University students involved in the present study, sup-
port from significant others at home and the University can be a relevant resource
that can enhance educational efforts and subsequently, employability.
The PYD perspective that the experience of developmental assets is associated
with thriving and that thriving in turn is associated with contribution was evident to
a considerable extent in the present study. Weak (but significant) to moderate cor-
relations were found between different asset categories and thriving as well as con-
tribution. However, in regression analysis, only Positive identity (an internal asset)
was found to increase with the number of thriving indicators that were reported.
This is consistent with findings in previous studies involving African participants
where internal assets were found to be better predictors of thriving (Drescher, Chin,
Johnson, & Johnson-Pynn, 2012).
For the thriving indicators, male participants were more likely to report that they
had been a leader of a group or an organization in the last 12 months and they were
also more likely to contribute to self-development. In contrast, female participants
were more likely to contribute to the family. These findings may suggest the per-
petuation of cultural norms and socialization processes that tend to favour the male
population in the Ghanaian context (Jayachandran, 2015). In the promotion of posi-
tive youth development in the Ghanaian or African context, youth policies seeking
to empower young people for national development can be more effective when the
impeding effects of such norms and processes are assessed and addressed.
Positive Development among Emerging Adults in Ghana 91

Limitations

The study participants were older (16–28 years) than the samples of adolescents
that have usually been focused on in studies using developmental assets. This may
have influenced some findings such as those on the Support and Constructive use of
time assets, although no significant correlation was found between age and any of
the asset categories. Also, several studies (e.g., Drescher et al., 2012; Scales, 2011)
have been successfully carried out with young adults included in the sample.
Moreover, positive development during the adolescent years is supposed to facili-
tate a healthy transition into adulthood. For emerging adults such as the Ghanaian
participants in the present study, assets or resources that will facilitate their develop-
ment and contribution to the society can be equally important to address.
The present study is a quantitative survey where participants were asked to indi-
cate their experience with a number of developmental assets that have been devel-
oped using US samples. Despite the universality of the assets, the question of
whether other assets that are specific to the Ghanaian context were adequately cap-
tured in the developmental assets still remains. The low Cronbach’s alpha that was
registered for the Constructive use of time assets may be a reflection of such assess-
ment limitation although low reliability coefficient has also been found for that asset
category in previous studies (Drescher et al., 2012). The marked differences in the
social and economic structures of the US and Ghana (i.e., Western vs. non-Western)
can determine which developmental assets are available or promoted in the specific
context. Future studies that use more open-ended questions or qualitative approach
can help uncover such specific developmental assets in the Ghanaian context.
The sample of the present study was university students, which is not representa-
tive of the youth population in Ghana. However, because participants were from
different academic disciplines and tend to come from different regions of the coun-
try, the sample may be representative of the University student population in Ghana.
Nevertheless, in the promotion of positive youth development in Ghana, a more
representative sample that includes young people from non-university settings and
non-educational settings is recommended.

Conclusion

Although the present sample is not representative of the youth population in Ghana,
and the experience of developmental assets, thriving and contribution of other youth
samples may differ from the present sample, the findings give an indication of
resources that are needed to promote thriving and contribution among young people
in Ghana and feasibly in other African countries. That young people are the future
cannot be emphasised enough especially in African countries where the bulk of the
population is made up of young people, and where the retirement age is quite early
(Mba, 2010). In the promotion of positive youth development in the Ghanaian and
92 N. Wiium

African contexts, PYD’s strategies of vertical pileup (where young people will
experience many developmental assets), horizontal stacking (where young people
will experience assets in multiple contexts) and developmental breath (where all
young people can be targeted) can be integrated in youth policies and programmes
to ensure that all young people are empowered to contribute to their own develop-
ment, their immediate settings and their nation.

Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Faculty of Psychology, University of

Bergen, Norway. The author would like to acknowledge Professor David Sam, University of
Bergen, Norway, for overseeing the ethical process for the data collection, Elias K. Kekesi in
Accra, Ghana, for supervising the data collection process and the students at the School of Social
Sciences, University of Ghana for participating in the study.

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