POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL(Core Course)

Module 1
Introduction: Operating States of Power System, Objectives of Control,
Key Concepts of Reliable Operation, Preventive and Emergency Controls,
Energy Management Centers.
Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA): Introduction,
components, application in Power System, basic functions and advantages.
Building blocks of SCADA system, components of RTU, communication
subsystem, IED functional block diagram.
Classification of SCADA system: Single master–single remote; Single
master–multiple RTU; Multiple master–multiple RTUs; and Single master,
multiple submaster, multiple remote.Module 2
Automatic Generation Control (AGC): Introduction, Schematic diagram of
load frequency and excitation voltage regulators of turbo generators, Load
frequency control (Single area case), Turbine speed governing system, Model
of speed governing system, Turbine model, Generator load model, Complete
block diagram of representation of load frequency control of an isolated power
system, Steady state analysis, Control area concept, Proportional plus Integral
Controller.
Module 3
Automatic Generation Control in Interconnected Power system: Two area load
frequency control, Optimal (Two area) load frequency control by state variable,
Automatic voltage control, Load frequency control with generation rate constraints
(GRCs), Speed governor dead band and its effect on AGC, Digital LF Controllers,
Decentralized control.
Module 4
Control of Voltage and Reactive Power: Introduction, Generation and absorption
of reactive power, Relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node,
Methods of voltage control: i. Injection of reactive power, Shunt capacitors and
reactors, Series capacitors, Synchronous compensators, Series injection. ii Tap
changing transformers. Combined use of tap changing transformers and reactive
power injection, Booster transformers, Phase shift transformers, Voltage collapse.
Module 5
▪ Power System Security: Introduction, Factors affecting power system
security, Contingency Analysis, Linear Sensitivity Factors, AC power flow
methods, Contingency Selection and Ranking.
▪ State estimation of Power Systems: Introduction, Linear Least Square
Estimation.
Course outcomes:
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
•Describe various levels of controls in power systems, architecture and
configuration of SCADA.
•Explain basic generator control loops, functions of Automatic generation control,
speed governors
•Develop and analyze mathematical models of Automatic Load Frequency Control
•Explain automatic generation control, voltage and reactive power control in an
interconnected power system.
•Explain reliability, security, contingency analysis, state estimation and related
issues of power systems
▪ Module 1
Operating states of power system
▪ 98% of time –exists in normal state
▪ Transition diagram shows the transition of the
system from normal to other states
▪ Operating states of power system –classified into
5 states
▪ E-refers to equality constraints-power flow
equations is satisfied.(generation matches with
the load) Frequency and voltage constancy is
observed.
▪ I-refers to inequality constraint –set the limits
on different operating parameters, such as
voltage, generation limits, currents etc.
▪ Normal operating state:in this state, the equality
constarints(E) and inequality constraints(I) are both
satisfied. The generation is adequate to meet the
demand, without any equipment being overloaded.
▪ Alert state-sudden loss of generation or some other
disturbance takes place—security level is
reduced-generation and load are matching-none of
the equipments are overloaded-some corrective
action is initiated and system may go back to normal
state
▪ If preventive action is not successful or if disturbance
is severe (loss of an additional generator) the system
enters Emergency state.
▪ .
▪ Emergency state-system is synchronised but some
equipment may be overloaded.Emergency control action is
needed , if emergency control fails system transits to
Exremis state-synchronisation is upset and the system
break up into island(a disconnected region of an
interconnected power grid) . E I are violated.(tripping of
generators due to overloading and some lines may be
tripped)
▪ Restorative state-involves generator restarts,
resynchronisation and gradual load pick up. this is a
transitional state-inequality constraints are satisfied but
the system has still not come to normal . Transition can be
either to alert or to the normal state
Objectives of power system
control
▪ The system must be able to meet the
changing demand in active and reactive
power. The spinning reserve maintained
should be sufficient to take care of sudden
variation in the demand
▪ The power quality(ability to supply power for
equipment to perform satisfactorily)should
meet certain standards with regard to
frequency, amplitude and waveshape
▪ The energy should be supplied at min cost
Various Levels of control
Various Levels of control
▪ Controls act on individual components
▪ 1.generators-provided with excitation control to keep the voltage
at the desired level –and provided with prime mover control to
maintain the frequency at the desired level
▪ 2.the prime mover control is concerned with regulation of the
speed-controls are associated with parameters-water discharge
quantity,boiler pr,temp.
▪ 3.power system stabilizers are used to damp oscillations of the
generator following a disturbance.-stabilising signal(frequency
,real power) is injected into the exciter system to damp the
oscillations
▪ 4.system generation control maintains the required active power
balance in the system. The AGC(Automatic generation control)-is
responsible for maintaining this balance.
Continued..
▪ 5.The transmission controls include power and voltage
control devices-to maintain the voltage levels within
limits,maintains system stability,protect the system and
result in reliable operation of the system. Control devices
are-tap changing transformers, FACTS,shunt reactors,
shunt capacitors, phase shifting transformers.
▪ 6.distribution level controls-capacitors,wave shaping
circuits are used to provide quality power to the
consumers.-these devices maintain the system voltage at
the correct frequency and amplitude –also helps in
removing harmonics injected into the load
▪ The operation and control of the system should finally
maintain stability, security, reliability
Key concepts of reliable
operation
▪ NERC(North American Electric Reliability corporation)
Proposed key concepts
▪ 1.balance the generation and the load-load on the power
system is dynamic-production by the generators must be
scheduled to meet this constantly changing load. AGCs are
used to meet this .load prediction is done to keep the
generation and reserve on hand .Failure to match the
generation with the demand causes frequency deviation
from the nominal value. Frequency increases if the
generation exceeds the demand and drops if the demand
exceeds the generation. Large deviation in frequency are
detrimental to the life of the equipment. Over frequency
and under frequency relays operate when the frequency
deviation cross the preset values.
Continued…

▪ 2.balance reactive power generation and

demand-this balance is required to maintain the
scheduled voltages-reactive power sources are
generators and capacitor banks. They must be
constantly adjusted to maintain the voltages within
the permissible range. The generator AVR controls
the voltage level of the generators. FACTS controllers
are commonly used for reactive power control.
▪ 3.ensure thermal limits are not violated-heating levels
of the overhead lines must not exceed otherwise the
lines will sag. Many critical blackouts due to sagging
of lines –leads to short circuits, relay tripping and grid
collapse.
▪ 4.maintains system stability-’ability of the power system for a given
operating conditions, to regain a state of equillibrium after being
subjected to a physical disturbance.if a system loses stability, the grid
may face a total collapse. Voltage stability and angle stability are vital for
the health of the system(angle stability-ability of the generators
connected to the grid to remain in synchronism.
▪ 5.Meet N-I reliability criteria-system should remain operational and
secure even after the loss of largest generator in the system.(N –No of
generators, N-I indicates loss of one generator)
▪ 6.plan, design and maintain to operate satisfactorily-such that system
should be operated reliably and within safe limits at all times
▪ 7.prepare for emergencies-in spite of well planning , good design ,
emergencies such as weather fluctuations, operator error, software
failure, equipment failure can occur. Operators must be trained to
prepare for such emergencies.
▪
Preventive and emergency
controls
▪ Preventive control-to keep the system in the normal state
from the alert state. Automatic controls are provided for
frequency and voltage control. Preventive control
measures commonly used are
▪ 1.resheduling of active power generated by various units to
match the changing load.
▪ 2. start up generation units and providing adequate
spinning reserve.
▪ 3.Switching the shunt elements for reactive power
control-this will help maintain the voltage within desired
limits
▪ 4.Change of reference points of controllable devices such
as FACTS controllers, phase shifting transformers.
▪ 5.change of substation configuration, like bus bar splitting.
Emergency control measures

▪ Are taken to stop worsening of the situation, prevent

degradation of the system and cascading failure
effects and bring back the system to the alert state.
▪ Common emergency control measures are
▪ 1tripping of generators
▪ 2.load shedding
▪ 3.Fast water diversion which leads to a fast reduction
in generation
▪ 4.controlled disconnection of interconnected system
to prevent spreading of frequency problems
▪ 5.Fast HVDC power transfer control
Energy management centre/energy
control centre of a power system
▪ Operation and interaction –more complex –as the
power system size increased
▪ Energy control centre monitor all the information for
the total system at a focal point
▪ Fundamental design feature of energy control
centre-they increase reliability and economic
feasibility.
▪ In energy control center-human operator sits at a
console containing computer CRT interface, keyboard
to enter control commands and telephone lines for
communications with generating stations and
transmission substations and also neighbouring
utilities.
▪ Main function of an energy control centre –to
coordinate the response of the system
elements / equipments in both normal
operations and emergency conditions.
▪ EMC(energy management centre) comprise
both hardware and software to monitor and
control the system.
▪ Controlling is a combination of automated
and manual operations.
Functions of energy centre
▪ Functions of the energy centre –divided into three
subsystem blocks.
▪ 1.Dispatch subsystem - involve the functions of unit
commitment, economic dispatch, automatic generation
and control.
▪ 2.Data subsystems -is essentially for data acquisition and
processing. It contains the units of SCADA, and all the
associated alarms and displays.
▪ 3.Security subsystems-basically to oversee the secure
operation of the power system. Functions included are
security monitoring, contingency analysis, and decision on
control actions based on the state of the system, such as
preventive control/restorative control/emergency control.
Major components of energy
centre
▪ 1.SCADA-contains two subsystems-supervisory
control and data acquisition. The supervisory
subsystem is responsible for a)display at the
central location, the status of CBs and other
devices such as tap changing of transformers,
etc. The dispatcher at the control centre will
initiate actions to switch CBs. change taps etc.
The data acquisition subsystem consists of the
remote terminal units(RTUs) to interface the
power system instrumentation with the control
devices and interface communication channels
and control centre.
Continued…
▪ 2.Computers-main functions of the computing facilities at
the control centre are as follows
▪ Real time monitoring and control
▪ User interface
▪ Operating studies
▪ Maintenance and testing
▪ Simulation studies.
▪ 3.User interface(with extensive GUI and display
facilities)-the user interface consists of data loggers,
display units and screen projections to alert operators.
Since there is extensive interaction with human beings,
modern interfaces use techniques of animation and
extensive graphics to make it more user friendly.
Continued…

▪ 3.Application software: this section is to

implement the various functions such as unit
commitment, economic dispatch, optimal
power flow, contingency analysis etc.
Components of SCADA

▪ Sensors and control relays-which interface with

the power systems
▪ Remote terminal units(RTU)-small computerised
units deployed in field at specific sites and
locations. these are collection points for getting
information and reports from sensors and for
sending commands to relays
▪ Master unit-large computer system which serves
as a central processor
▪ Communication links
▪ Software
Continued…
▪ Master unit-the heart of scada system
▪ Operations of different RTUs are made from the master
unit and reported back by RTUs to the master unit
▪ Master unit has a digital computer and other ancillary
equipment to permit communications between master
unit and RTUs-one such equipment is a
Modem(modulator-demodulator)
▪ Since computer uses digital pulses, modem converts these
digital pulses to analog signal so that it can be transmitted
to RTU.
▪ Pinter enables the messages received from RTUs to be
converted to hard copy
▪ Single line diagram of the power system controlled
through scada also exists in the master station.
▪ Digital to analog converters are also provided
in master unit so that information like line
currents, bus voltages, frequency, real and
reactive power flows as received in digital
form is converted to analog form and read by
indicating instruments.
▪ Colour CRT screens enable different colours
to indicate changes in voltage levels,
positions of circuit breakers etc.
Remote terminal units(RTU)
▪ These units are located at selected locations in the power
systems.
▪ They are equipped with microcomputers –have logic and
memory capabilities-termed as intelligent remote terminal
units
▪ These units can perform various functions and report all
these actions to the master unit
▪ They also have modem to enable them to receive
messages from master unit and send compliance reports to
the master unit.
▪ Also have relays to send signals to the CBs
▪ Also are provided with transducers to make measurements
▪ RTUs use A/D converters to send these measurements to
the master unit.
▪ Also have memory capability and can store
information about tripping and subsequent
reclosing of CB.
▪ If many operations take place in quick
succession, RTU is fitted with sequence of
events recording facility
▪ Events separated by even a few milliseconds
can be recorded in correct sequence
SCADA

▪ SCADA-Supervisory control and data

acquisition system
▪ It is a means of controlling from remote
location by using communication technology.
▪ To monitor and control the system,the
SCADA Collects data from the system and
issues commands accordingly.
▪ The system is supervised by a master SCADA
master station which collects data from
monitoring devices and issues controls
Functions of SCADA
▪ Data acquisition-to provide data, measurements and status
information to operator.
▪ Plotting-to plot different measurements in real time
▪ Supervisory control-to operate and control circuit breakers
remotely.
▪ Alarms-to send alarm signals-undesirable operating conditions
▪ Logging-to log all information,alarms
▪ Load shedding-to provide automatic and manual load schedding
in emergent conditions
▪ Load restoration-to restore loads after system returns to normal
state
▪ Automatic generation control-to control generation at the power
plants
Need for SCADA

▪ To reduce man power

▪ To reduce cost
▪ To reduce future capital requirements
▪ To improve level of service
▪ To avoid environmental accidents
▪ To comply with regular requirements
▪ To replace existing aging systems
▪ To manage complex systems
Configurations(Classification
of SCADA System)
▪ Depending on the system and its requirements-SCADA has
different configurations
▪ 1)One to one scada configuration-it has a master unit for
each remote unit (Single master–single remote)
▪ 2)star(hub)configuration ( Single master–multiple RTU)-has
master unit at a central location and remote units
branched out.The no of remote units depends on the
power system. Each communication line has one remote.
▪ 3)party line configuration-there may be many remote units
on a communication channel.
▪ 4)network configuration-it has one master unit., several
communication channels and many remotes on each
channel.-it is a combination of star and party line
configurations.
SCADA applications in power
system
▪ System operators : SCADA is meant to alert the operator to an a event and
help to initiate a control action in a timely manner.

▪ Relay Operators : To determine the operation of relays for faults. The time
stamping and sequence of events record helps the operator to analyse the
operations and direct any a maloperation if it has occurred.

▪ Maintenance department : To determine maintenance schedule of breakers or

relays.

▪ Production department : Use centralized data collection relating to unit and

plant generation, station service, fuel use, efficiency, etc.
Components of RTU

▪ An RTU consists of a hardware panel where

one or more input/output (I/O) modules are
installed. The most important components of
an RTU are the central processing unit (CPU),
power supply, communication port, and
physical I/O.
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU)

▪ The CPU may consist of one or more complex circuit cards that execute central
function processing. Modern RTUs use 32-bits microprocessors. The CPU makes use
of a watchdog timer to validate that the cycle execution is done correctly. The CPU
module may also be equipped with ethernet communication ports. Some RTUs come
with dual CPUs, in which case, they are configured as primary and backup,
providing redundancy to the device.

▪ Power Supply

▪ RTUs are normally supplied with continuous power from a main line. However, the
▪ remote locations where RTUs may be installed are also typically provisioned with
▪ backup battery modules. This can help ensure uninterrupted operation for a period of
▪ time. The most common type of battery used is lead-acid, although lithium
▪ batteries have been gaining popularity more recently.
Communication Ports

Every RTU needs a way to communicate to the outside with the client (or master)
SCADA station. To achieve this, they are equipped with at least one
communication port. RTUs support many communication protocols, including
Ethernet, RS-232, and Modbus. Some of the most common topologies supported
in RTU and SCADA networks are ring, series, star, etc.

Physical I/O

RTUs support the four most common I/O modules: digital input, digital output,
analog input, and analog output. Digital input modules capture status and alarm
signals coming from the field devices. Digital output is necessary to send signals
and commands to the field devices. Analog inputs and outputs work with variable
current or voltage, normally in the 0-1 mA or 0-10 V ranges, respectively.
▪ Intelligent Electronic Devices abbreviated as
IED is defined as devices that have
▪ single or multiple microprocessors integrated
within it. Its main purpose involves the
transmission or reception of data or control
signals to or from an external device. The
external device in consideration with the
whole system can be transducers, relays,
control units, etc.
Block Diagram of IED
▪ Auxiliary Power Supply: An auxiliary power supply or source is basically an electric
power supplied by a backup alternate source other than the primary main source.
IEDs always need an auxiliary power supply, unlike older protection relays where
an auxiliary power supply is of not much significance. So, the acceptable power
supply used by IEDs is in the range between 15 to 150 volts in the case of DC. While
110 to 140 Volts when AC.

▪ Analog Inputs: In relays, inputs are provided by the current transformer and
potential transformers. However, IEDs may have sensor inputs.

▪ Digital Inputs: Digital inputs provided to the IEDs may be some sort of commands
or any status information. Some of these need potential free contacts while some
understand with the consideration of logic 0 or logic 1 as negative voltage and
positive voltage respectively.

▪ Analog Outputs: Generally, transducers are used to get the output from the IEDs
which is programmable type. The output can be of active or passive nature but a
▪ passive type output requires an external power supply.
▪ Digital Outputs: In the case of digital outputs, the potential contacts can be normally open,
normally closed, or solid-state contacts. Similar to digital inputs, digital outputs are also
commands or status information, and the switchingcapability must be properly checked as the
significant differences can be noticed.

▪ It is to be noted that IEDs offer quick real-time data transferring and receiving ability by utilizing
multiple ports. The different IEDs are designed to operate on analog input, analog output,
digital input, and digital output. Like an IED has electromechanical relays, wiring, control
switches, and many more within it.

▪ Some auxiliary functions are also offered by IEDs which are as follows:

▪ Monitoring: It monitors self and external circuits along with checking the real-time
synchronization of the events that are occurring.

Data Accessing: IEDs can access the data present locally as well as the one which is present at
distant substations.

▪ Testing and Analysis: It has certain software tools used for the purpose of testing, reporting, and
fault analysis. Also, it offers the programmable logic controller functionality.
Module 2-Automatic Generation
Control
▪ Imp parameters of the power system
1.System voltage
2.System frequency
▪ To be continuously monitored and controlled to maintain them within
acceptable limits
▪ Frequency deviation occur due to imbalance between generation and
load.
▪ The load on the system being dynamic, the voltage and frequency
continuously changes. These deviations must be detected in real time
and the automatic control system should initiate control action to
counter these deviations and bring the system back quickly to its original
state.
▪ Basic generator control loops
▪ A)Automatic voltage regulator(AVR)
▪ B)Automatic load frequency control(ALFC) or Automatic generation
control (AGC)
▪ AVR-used to control the terminal voltage of the generator
▪ The generator terminal voltage is controlled by the field
current, supplied by the exciter
▪ To implement the AVR, the terminal voltage is
continuously sensed, rectified and smoothened.
▪ The dc signal is then compared with the reference d.c to
produce the error voltage.
▪ This error voltage is amplified and is used as input to the
exciter to adjust the field current in such a way that the
terminal voltage reaches the reference value.
▪ ALFC also called as AGC controls the real power so as to
maintain the system frequency at constant level.
▪ This is achieved by controlling the speed of the prime
mover.
▪ ALFC comprises of two loops
▪ 1.Fast primary loop
▪ 2.Slow secondary loop
▪ Fast primary loop which responds to frequency change(due to
load changes) and regulates the steam or water flow via the
speed governor and control valves to match the real power
output with that of load .
▪ The time period considered here is few seconds.
▪ Primary loop performs coarse speed or frequency control
▪ Slower secondary loop which maintains fine frequency
adjustments to maintain proper active power interchange with
other interconnected networks via tie lines.
▪ This loop is insensitive to fast load and frequency changes and
acts on deviations which takes place over several minutes.
Terms used in AGC
▪ Control area-a large scale power system is divided into number of control area. A
control area is a part of a system to which a common generation control is applied
▪ Tie line- the transmission line connecting two are more areas are called tie lines.
Active power flows from one area to another via the tie lines.
▪ Frequency
▪ 1)system frequency –the actual frequency of the system a.c. voltage
▪ 2)Standard frequency-the frequency intended to be used as reference
▪ 3)Rated frequency-the frequency for which the generating equipment is designed.
▪ 4)scheduled frequency-the frequency which the system attempts to maintain.
▪ Load frequency characteristic-for a control area it is the change in total area load
resulting from a change in system frequency
▪ Station control error-it is the station generation minus the assigned station
generation
▪ Unit control error- it is the unit generation minus assigned unit generation
Functions of AGC

▪ Frequency of various bus voltages are maintained

at the scheduled frequency.
▪ The tie line power flows are maintained at the
scheduled levels
▪ The total power is shared by all the generators
economically
▪ Modern AGC includes other functions
1.schedule generation to accumulate lower fuel cost
over the selected time frame.
2.Maintain a sufficient level of reserved control
range and sufficient level of control rate.
▪ Provide meaningful alarms such as display in
control center for deviation from desired
generation, unit not responding to AGC
control signal, anticipated future generation
Speed governor system
▪ 3.Linkage mechanism: ABC –a rigid link,
pivoted at B
▪ CDE-another rigid link pivoted at D.
▪ Linkage mechanism provides movement to
the control valve in proportional to change in
speed.
Continued…Operation of
speed governing system
▪ As load increases-speed decreases-fly ball move
(ALFC)
towards each other-B moves up-C moves up –D
moves up and high pressure oil enters top of the
piston –and opens the control valve and more
steam is supplied to the turbine
▪ As load decreases reverse process happens
▪ By controlling the position of control valve, we
can control the flow of high pressure steam
through the turbine. Downward movement of E
increases the steam which increases the valve
power -ΔPv
Hydraulic valve actuator

▪ Output of hydraulic valve actuator is ΔPv

▪ Hence power balance equation is
▪ i.e power imbalance is sum of the above two
analysis
50 50

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0 x 200 0 600-x 400