COMPUTER NETWORKS

WHAT IS A NETWORK?

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS
•File sharing – you can easily share data between different users, or access it remotely if you keep
it on other connected devices.

•Resource sharing – using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners and
copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.

•Improved Communication at low cost- people can use emails and instant messengers over the
network to communicate. Voice calling, video calling over internet has brought the world closer.
ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS (Continued)
 EVOLUTION OF INTERNET

The network did not evolve in a single day; rather, it took decades to become more powerful, efficient and reliable. The
network has passed through several stages which are described below:

• ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET, which was jointly designed and named by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and US Department of Defence (DoD), was the first network and came into
existence in 1969. It was a project that connected a handful of computers at different universities and US DoD for sharing
of data and messages and playing long-distance games, and socializing with people to share their views. Arpanet carried
its first message on October 29, 1969, laying the foundation for today’s networked world.
When Arpanet was created, it connected five sites: UCLA, Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, the University of Utah and BBN
Technologies.

• NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid-80’s, another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science
Federation Network), created a new network which was more capable than ARPANET. Its main aim was to use network
only for academic research and not for any private business activity. Later, many private companies combined their own
private networks with ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and broad network—the Internet. It is the internet
that links two or more networks to make a large network for sharing of information and messages.
INTERNET

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that
consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks.
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

Switching sends data along different routes. Process of forwarding data from one point to another.
Two types
• Connection oriented
• Connection less
NOT IN SYLLABUS , JUST READ
Each packet is of fixed size
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nomyRJehhnM
TCP/IP
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDHJxndSups
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9arSNHLgsc
BUS , STAR, TREE TOPOLOGIES IN SYLLABUS
Terminator is a device
connected to one end of a
bus or cable that absorbs
signals. Terminators prevent
signal reflection, which can
produce interference that
causes signal loss.
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted
together. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce
crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. Twisted-pair cable is
used by older telephone networks and is the least expensive type
of local-area network (LAN) cable.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner
conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer typically of a
flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are
surrounded by a conductive layer called the shield, and finally
covered with a thin insulating layer on the outside. The term
coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield
sharing the same geometric axis.
Opitcal Fibre

Fiber optic cable consists of a center glass core surrounded by

several layers of protective material. It transmits data in the
form of light rather than electronic signals. Thus it eliminates
the problem of electrical interference.

It uses the principle of total internal reflection of light.

Fiber optic cable is expensive as compared to coaxial and

twisted pair cable but can transmit signals over much longer
distances. It also has the capability to carry data at very high
speed.
Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and penetrate through buildings easily so they are widely used
for communication both indoors and outdoors. Radio waves are omnidirectional meaning that they travel in all directions
from the source, so that the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically. The properties of radio
waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies radio waves pass well through obstacles. At high frequencies, radio
waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all frequencies radio
waves are subject to interference from motors and other electrical equipment.
Radio Wave Communication
•Frequency Range: Radio waves have frequencies from about 30 Hz to 300 GHz.
•Wavelength Range: They range from about 1 millimeter to several kilometers in wavelength.
•Propagation: Radio waves can travel long distances, especially in the lower frequency ranges. They can be transmitted
through the ionosphere, enabling long-distance communication.
•Applications: Commonly used for AM/FM radio, television broadcasting, mobile phones, and communication with remote
regions due to their extensive reach.
•Modulation: To carry information, radio waves can be modulated in amplitude (AM) or frequency (FM), which encodes the
data for transmission.
Microwave Communication
•Frequency Range: Microwaves occupy the higher frequency range, typically from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
•Wavelength Range: Their wavelengths range from 1 millimeter to 1 meter.
•Propagation: Unlike radio waves, microwaves travel in straight lines and are not reflected by the ionosphere, so they’re
used primarily for line-of-sight communication.
•Applications: They are widely used for satellite communications, Wi-Fi, radar systems, and Bluetooth. Due to their higher
frequency, microwaves can carry more information than radio waves, making them ideal for data-intensive applications.
•Modulation: Microwaves use techniques like frequency modulation (FM), amplitude modulation (AM), and phase
modulation (PM) for efficient data transmission.
Key Differences:
•Range: Radio waves have a longer range than microwaves, which are limited to line-of-sight.
•Frequency & Wavelength: Microwaves have higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths compared to radio waves,
enabling them to carry more data.
•Applications: Radio waves are generally used for broader broadcasts, while microwaves are ideal for targeted, high-
bandwidth communication like satellite links.
JUST READ
 JUST READ

https://www.bluetooth.com/learn-about-bluetooth/bluetooth-technology/range/
 JUST READ

Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide
wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. The name is a contraction of "Wireless
Fidelity".
1.Wi-Fi routers use 802.11 networking standards. A computer's wireless adapter translates data
into a radio signal and transmits it using an antenna. Wi-Fi 6, or 802.11ax, is the latest Wi-Fi
generation, announced in Sept. 2019
2.A wireless router receives the signal and decodes it. The router sends the information to the
Internet using a physical, wired Ethernet connection.
A WiFi hotspot is simply an area with an accessible wireless network.
Most new laptops and many new desktop computers come with built-in wireless transmitters, and just
about all mobile devices are WiFi enabled. If your computer isn't already equipped, you can buy a wireless
adapter that plugs into the PC card slot or USB port.
 JUST READ

Few Base stations are enough to cover a considerable area.

 JUST READ

WiMAX is a family of wireless broadband communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of
standards
Satellite

JUST READ
 NETWORK DEVICES
1. Modem
•Function: Short for Modulator-Demodulator, a modem converts digital data from a computer into analog signals that
can be transmitted over phone lines (and vice versa). It’s essential for internet connectivity over telephone lines.
•Types: Dial-up, DSL, and Cable modems.
•Use: Common in home and office networks for accessing the internet.
2. Ethernet Card (Network Interface Card, NIC)
•Function: A hardware component that allows computers to connect to a network via an Ethernet cable.
•Type: It can be integrated into the motherboard or added as an external card.
•MAC Address: Each Ethernet card has a unique MAC (Media Access Control) address for identification.
3. RJ45 Connector
•Function: A type of connector commonly used for network cables in Ethernet networks.
•Structure: It has 8 pins and is used to connect the ends of Ethernet cables to devices like NICs or routers.
•Use: Ensures secure and reliable physical connection for Ethernet networking.
4. Repeater
•Function: Boosts or amplifies signals in a network to extend the transmission distance.
•Use: Primarily used in long-distance cabling and wireless networks to maintain signal strength.
•Application: Useful in areas where the network covers large physical spaces.
5. Hub
•Function: A basic device that connects multiple devices in a network. It forwards data packets to all connected
devices, regardless of the destination.
•Limitation: It lacks intelligence, meaning it cannot filter or direct traffic efficiently, often leading to network
congestion.
•Use: Suitable for small networks but generally replaced by switches in modern setups. 6. Switch
•Function: Connects multiple devices in a network, similar to a hub, but is more intelligent. It forwards data only to the
device it is intended for, based on MAC addresses.
•Benefit: Reduces network congestion and improves performance.
•Use: Commonly used in LAN (Local Area Network) environments.
7. Router
•Function: Connects multiple networks and directs data between them, typically from a local network to the internet.
•Intelligence: Uses IP addresses to route data to the correct destination.
•Use: Essential for internet connectivity in both home and office networks.
8. Gateway
•Function: Acts as a "gateway" between different networks, particularly those with differing protocols.
•Role: Translates data formats, protocols, and addresses for compatibility.
•Use: Typically used when connecting a local network to an external network, such as the internet.
9. Wi-Fi Card
•Function: A network adapter that allows a computer or device to connect to a Wi-Fi network.
•Connection Type: Can be internal (built into laptops) or external (USB adapters).
•Use: Essential for wireless connectivity to Wi-Fi networks.
 Layer 6 device (data link layer)

SWITCH
In a telecommunications network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple input ports to the
specific output port that will take the data toward its intended destination. A switch is a little smarter than a hub. It records
the IP and MAC addresses in a table of all the devices connected to it. Thus when a packet is received the switch reads the
destination address information to determine if the destination device is connected to it. It it is, the switch forwards the
packet only to the destination device sparing the other devices connected to it from having to read and deal with the traffic.
Switch is the preferred answer
PROTOCOLS
What is FTP (File Transfer Protocol)?
FTP is a widely used network protocol for transferring files between
computers over a TCP/IP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP lets people
and applications exchange and share data within their offices and across the
Internet.

FTP connection needs two parties to establish and communicate on the network.
To do that, users need to have permission by providing credentials to the FTP
server. Some public FTP servers may not require credentials to access their files.
The practice is common in a so-called anonymous FTP.

FTP is the underlying protocol that is used to, as the name suggests, transfer files
over a communication network. It establishes two TCP connections: Control
Connection to authenticate the user, and Data Connection to transfer the
files.
IP (Internet Protocol)- A network layer protocol. Responsible for routing of
the packets.
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It enables devices, such as computers,
smartphones, and routers, to locate and communicate with each other over the internet or local network.
Types of IP Addresses:
1.IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
•Consists of four groups of numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
2.IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
•Uses a more complex, hexadecimal system with 8 groups of four characters, separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the data link layer
that is used to transmit data between two directly connected (point-to-point)
computers. It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband
communications having heavy loads and high speeds. Since it is a data link layer
protocol, data is transmitted in frames.
•IMAP is short for Internet Message Access Protocol. With IMAP, the message does not
remain on the local device, such as a computer, it remains on the server.

•POP3 is short for Post Office Protocol. With POP3 mail, it will connect and attempt to
keep the mail located on the local device (computer or mobile).

Pop3 vs. IMAP: Which is better?

IMAP is better if you are going to be accessing your email from multiple devices, such as
a work computer and a smart phone. POP3 works better if you are only using one device,
but have a very large number of emails. It is also better if you have a poor internet
connection and need to access your emails offline. For most people, IMAP will suit their
needs better.
Note: If emails start disappearing from your inbox without you deleting them, it almost
always means one of your devices is on POP3. Backing up the emails and then resetting
up the email account as IMAP will fix the problem.
Telnet
Provides a command-line interface for remote login and communication.
•Function: Allows users to control and manage a computer over a network as if they
were logged in locally.
•Security Note: TELNET sends data in plaintext, making it less secure than newer protocols
like SSH.
Telnet is an application level protocol that allows you to connect to remote computers
(called hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as the internet).
Using telnet client software on your computer, you can make a connection to a telnet server
(that is, the remote host). Once your telnet client establishes a connection to the remote host,
your client becomes a virtual terminal, allowing you to communicate with the remote host
from your computer. In most cases, you'll need to log into the remote host, which requires
that you have an account on that system. Occasionally, you can log in as guest or public
without having an account.
Scripts
A Script is a list of commands embedded in a web page. Scripts
are interpreted and executed by a certain program or scripting
engine.
Client-side scripting generally refers to the scripts that are
executed client-side, by the user's web browser, instead of
server-side (on the web server).
This type of computer programming is an important part of the
Dynamic HTML (DHTML) concept, enabling web pages to be
scripted; that is, to have different and changing content
depending on user input, environmental conditions (such as the
time of day), or other variables.
E.g. of clent scripting languages – VB Script, JavaScript, PHP
(Hypertext Preprocessor)
Server-side scripting generally refers to the scripts that are
executed at the server end and the result is sent to the client end. Client-side scripting Server-side scripting
E.g. Server-side scripting languages – ASP (Active Server Main Defn Main Defn
Pages), JSP (Java Server Pages), Perl, PHP (Hypertext Browser Dependant Browser Independent
Preprocessor) Affected by the Affected by the processing speed of
processing speed of the host server
the user’s computer
Examples of Examples of languages
languages
Web 2.0 is characterized especially by the change from static web pages to dynamic or user-generated
content and the growth of social networking.

In web 1.0, data was posted on Web sites, and users simply viewed or downloaded the content (static pages).
Web 2.0 characterized by dynamic features like blogging, social networking sites etc.

Web 2.0 (or Web 2) is the popular term for advanced Internet technology and applications including blogs, wikis,
RSS and social bookmarking. The two major components of Web 2.0 are the technological advances enabled by
Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) and other new applications such as RSS.
Problems: Third-party cookies let advertisers or analytics companies track an individual's
browsing history across the web on any sites that contain their ads.

FIREWALL
A Firewall is used to prevent unauthorized access to the network. A Firewall can be implemented
as a software, hardware or combination of both. All data or messages entering or leaving the
network pass through the firewall. Firewall examines each message and blocks those that do not
meet the specified security criteria.
CyberLaw
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Cyber Law is a generic term which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of the Internet and the World
Wide Web. It is important because it touches almost all aspects of transactions and activities concerning the
Internet, the World Wide Web and Cyberspace.

Indian IT Act

The Information Technology Act, 2000 (also known as ITA-2000, or the IT Act) is an Act of
the Indian Parliament (No 21 of 2000) notified on 17 October 2000. It is the
primary law in India dealing with cybercrime and electronic commerce.

The Act provides a legal framework for electronic governance by giving recognition to electronic
records and digital signatures. It also defines cyber crimes and prescribes penalties for them.
A major amendment was made in 2008. It introduced Section 66A which penalized sending "offensive
messages". It also introduced Section 69, which gave authorities the power of "interception or
monitoring or decryption of any information through any computer resource". Additionally, it
introduced provisions addressing - pornography, child porn, cyber terrorism and voyeurism.
Cybercrime
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Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer
may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.Cybercrime may threaten a person,
company or a nation's security and financial health.
Examples: credit card frauds, website hacking

Intellectual Property Right (IPR)

Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets,
such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and
designs.

Common types of Intellectual Property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and
trade secrets in some jurisdictions.