THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL

Module 2 The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

What can you say of these headlines? Do these reflect what are going on in our schools?
Should the public know and be involved in the schooling of their citizens? What are the
implications of each headline to the classroom curriculum?

Each member of society seems to view school curriculum differently, hence there are
varied demands on what schools should do and what curriculum should be taught. Some
would demand reducing content and shifting emphasis to development of lifelong skills.
Others feel that development of character has been placed at the back seat of some schools.
More debates are emerging on the use of languages in the classroom. Should it be mother
tongue, the national language or the global language?

There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should really be. To have a common
understanding of what curriculum really is, this lesson will present some definitions as
given by authors. Likewise, you will find in this lesson the description of the nature and
scope of curriculum from several points of view. This lesson will also explain how
curriculum is being approached. It further shows a development process as a concept and
as a process as applied to school curriculum.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners' continuous and willful growth in personal social
competence." (Daniel Tanner, 1980)

2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,

learning activities, evaluation

procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980) 3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be
acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences,
product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)

4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program
of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which
is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or pau and present professional
practice." (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain
so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy,
1987)

6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a
tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities
and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
(Goodland and Su, 1992)

7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1992)

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculúm are shaped by a person's point of view, this
has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when put together, the different
definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps
ever changing.

Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to
the person's philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These views
can also define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules of grammar,

reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs
(Reading, Writing, 'rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal
education should be the emphasis in college.

Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual
disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics, science,
history and foreign language. Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a
discipline, thus the subject areas such as Science, Mathematics Social Studies, English and
many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages,
mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for
curriculum development.

Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes
from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and Phenix,
curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is
concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues. From a
traditional view, curriculum is mostly written documents such syllabus, course of study,
books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish
intended goals.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and specific
discipline does not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of
curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how
curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.

Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have
under the guidance of teachers.

Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a
sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children
and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person's
philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies,

a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that
goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the
teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in
school or what individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, curriculum is
the total learning experiences of the learner under the guidance of the teacher.

Lesson 2.2 Approaches to the School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a content, a

process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field,
there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content or a
body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach it as a product or the learning
outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens
in the classroom when the curriculum is practised.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum to a topic outline, subject

matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a primary school
mathematics curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division,
distance, weight and many more. Another example is in secondary school science that
involves the study of biological science, physical science, environmental science and earth
science, Textbooks tend to
begin with biological science such are plants and animals; science with the physical
elements, force and motion; earth the layers of the earth and environmental science with
the of the biological and physical science and earth's phenomena, climate, vegetation
followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining industries, urbanization and so
forth. physical science with interaction

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be
transmitted to students using appropriate teachin method. There can be a likelihood that
teaching will be limited t the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject
matte however, the content or subject matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models The fund of knowledge is
the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of
the earth and as products of research. In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored
on a body of knowledge or discipline.
There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum These are:

1. Topical Approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences are
included; Selected content in the

2. Concept Approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts and their
interaction, with relatedness emphasized;

3. Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that develop Guide in t conceptual

structures, and around

4. Modular Approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)

1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization

that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content becomes
the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the learner. As
education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when this will address
the cultural context of the should learners.

2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and
verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original form
may not continue to be valid in the current times.

3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum in moloting tothe learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past, but
may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my future job? Will
it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in
solving current concerns?

4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of
the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles that
would influence learnability.

5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there
opportunities provided to learn these?

6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned
earlier, may include the following guide.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners

3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future

career 4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for

complementation and integration

5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

Palma in 1952 proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by Balance,
Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. However, in designing a curriculum
contents Hunkins and Ornstein (2018) added an important element which is Scope, hence
from BASIC to BASICS initials of Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, Continuity.

Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee
that significant contents should be covered to avoid much ortion. As the content
complexityors the same discipline the Hence levels, vertically or horizontally, the same
discipline desired education connections or bridging should be provide the content is sure
gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness and can be assured if there is articulation in
the curriculum. Thus, there is a need off team among writers and implementers of
curriculum. Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence how or
order. This can be done vertically for deepening the content of the a horizontally for
broadening the same content. In both ways, the patten or PC usually is from easy to
complex, what is known to the unknown, what you is current to something in the future.

Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in strate isolation. It has
some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other desc contents. Contents should be
infused in other disciplines whenever The possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified
view of curriculum com instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other
disciplines acquire a higher premium than when isolated.

Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should the continuously flow as it was
before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It
endures time. Content may not bas be in the same form and substance as seen in the past
since changes and developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement
and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity.

Scope. The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a curriculum. Scope
consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the curriculum. In
layman's term scope refers to coverage. The scope shall consider the cognitive level,
affective domain and psychomotor skills in identifying the contents. Other factors will be
considered but caution is given to overloading of contents. "More contents is not always
better."

2. Curriculum as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can
also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun,
but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As
a process, curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and
the learning activities engaged in by the students. It is an active process with emphasis on
the context in which the processes occur. Used in analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook, a
recipe is the content while the ways of cooking is the process.

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a

package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only part of
the learning environment
Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to
emphasize critical thinking, and heads-on, hands-on learning and many others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on what to
teach, the process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished,
the process will result to various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection
of the content and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will
address the question: If you have this content, how will you teach it?

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning
experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of
curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents
will be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction,
implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When
educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1.
Problem- based. 2. Hands-on, Minds-on 3. Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5.
On-line 6. Case-based and many more. These responses approach curriculum as a Process.
These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of
teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these, there are
activities and actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are guided by
the teacher. Some of the strategies are time- tested traditional methods while others are
emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve
the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.

4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective

process will always result to learning outcomes.

7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the
curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, product. In other words,

product is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student knowledge, skills and values to function
effectively and The real purpose of education is to efficiently bring about significant change
statemen in students' pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement of objectives
or intended outcomes of the school should be a of changes to take place in the students.
Central to the approach it the formulation of behavioral objectives stated as intended
learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching method may be
organized and the results evaluated. Products of learning are operationalized as
knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes which are referred to as the
achieved learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the
process is not successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or
achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful
experiences in the curriculum. All of these are result of planning content and processes in
the curriculum.

Lesson 2.3 Processes and Models

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and

procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the better
means alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive
changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear
and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum
planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation.
Generally, most models involve four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes the
philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be
translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection

and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or
activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure
achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the resources to be
utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the
facilitator of learning and together with the learners, uses the curriculum as design guides
to what will transpire in the classroom with the end in view of achieving the intended
learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves
the activities that transpire in every teacher's classroom where learning becomes an active
process.

4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved. This procedure is on- going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative)
or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the
factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where
improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is
very important for decision-making of curriculum planners and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles Also known as Tyler's Rationale, the curriculum
development model emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are
illustrated as answers to the following questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler's model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should
be made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes

3. Organization of the experiences

4. Evaluation of the experience

Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

believed th curriculum. Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She teachers should
participate in developing a grassroots approach, Taba begins from the bottom, rather than
fr the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented six major steps to ta linear model which
are the following: A

1. Diagnosis of learners' needs and expectations of the lar society

v 2. Formulation of learning objectives

N 3. Selection of learning contents

VI 4. Organization of learning contents

15. Selection of learning experiences

16. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doin it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewe curriculum development as consisting of
four steps. Curriculum "a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve bro
educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiab population served by a
single school center."

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum plannen begin by specifying the major
educational goals ant specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal
represents a curriculum domain: persona development, human relations, continued
learning skill and specialization. The goals, objectives and domain are identified and chosen
based on research findings accreditation standards, and views of the differen stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning

opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum
be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and
interests of along themes? These are some of the questions that need

to be answered at this stage of the development process 3. Curriculum Implementation. A

designed curriculum is now ready for implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional
plans where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and
strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes

among students.
Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive
evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the
total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of
instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum
planners and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the school and the
objectives of instruction have been met.

All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum designing.
(3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating.

Lesson 2.4 Foundations of Curriculum

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations

Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers'
classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like:
What are schools for? What subjects are important? How should students learn? What
methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John
Dewey influenced the use of "learning by doing", he being a pragmatist. Or to an
essentialist, the focus is on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic, the
essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate ot those as presented by
Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism

Plato, Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas)

Aim: To educate the rational person; intellect cultivate

Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking: HOTS)

Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis Curriculum is enduring

Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism
Wiliam Bagley (1974-1946)

Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent

Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.

Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects

Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy

C. Progressivism

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Aim: Promote democratic social living

Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners

Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner- centered. Outcomes-based

Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education

D. Reconstructionism

Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)

Aim: To improve and reconstruct society.

Education for change

Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms

Focus: Present and future educational landscape

Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and Convergence,
Standards and Competencies

2. Historical Foundations

Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us
the chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that
curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book "The
Curriculum." Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development during his
own time. Here are eight among the many whom we consider to have great contributions.

Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

He started the curriculum development movement.

Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students" needs.

Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.

Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.

Werret Charters (1875-1952)

Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students' needs.

Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.

William Kilpartick (1875-1952)

Curricula are purposeful activities which are child- centered.

The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced this project
method

where teacher and student plan the activities. Curriculum develops social relationships and
small group instruction.

Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.

With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce
outcomes.

He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)

◆ Curriculum is organized around social function 3. Ps of themes, organized knowledge
and interest. learner's

Curriculum, instruction and learning e interrelated.

❖ Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matte is developed around social functions

and learner interests.

Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

→ Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. It is based on students'
needs and interest.

Curriculum is always related to instruction Subject matter is organized in terms of

knowledge, skills and values.

The process emphasizes problem solving Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not
specialists.

Hilda Taba (1902-1967)

She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development
and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.

She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

Peter Oliva (1992-2012)

He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor.

Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners.

Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning?
What is the optimal level of students' participation in learning the various contents of the
curriculum? In this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories:
behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories and
humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

Persons

Contributions/Theories and Principles

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R theory.

The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become.

S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

He championed the connectionism theory.

He proposed the three laws of learning:

Law of readiness

Law of exercise

Law of effect

Specific stimulus has specific response

Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

He proposed the hierarchical learning theory

Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions

He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

• Theories of Jean Piaget

Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.

Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11) and
formal operations (11 - onwards).

• Keys to learning

• Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)

• Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)

• Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)

• Theories of Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

• Cultural transmission and development stage.

Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain
cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.

Learning precedes development.

Sociocultural development theory.

• Keys to Learning

• Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development.

• The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

Howard Gardner

Gardner's multiple intelligences

Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another.
There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Daniel Goleman
Emotion contains the power to affect action.

• He called this Emotional Quotient.

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols

Contributions/Theories and Principles

Gestalt
• Gestalt Theory

• Learning is explained in terms of "wholeness" of the problem.

• Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of

stimuli.

• Keys to learning

Learning is complex and abstract.

• Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data, and
perceive relationships.

• Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/how they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory

Classic theory of human needs

A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the
world.

He put importance to human based on love and trust. emotions

• Key to learning
Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her
human self.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

• Nondirective and therapeutic learning

He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.

Children's perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and
behaviour in class.

• Key to learning

Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.

4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum

School and society

➤ Society as a source of change

➤ Schools as agents of change

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

➤ Knowledge as an agent of change

Influence of society and social context in education

Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior.

➤ Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society

Alvin Toffler
Wrote the book Future Shock
➤ Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future
➤ Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed
curriculum from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home Schooling)
➤ Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of
their age

Other Theorists.

Paolo Freire 1921-1997

➤ Education as a means of shaping the person and society through critical reflections and
"conscientization"

➤ Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach to raise students' consciousness

➤ Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking

➤ Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

John Goodlad 1920-2014

➤ Curriculum organized around needs of society and the students

Reduce student conformity in classroom

Constant need for school improvement

➤ Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking

➤ Involvement of students in planning curriculum content and instructional activities

➤ Need to align content with standards

➤ Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are Schools For? 1989

Chapter 2. Designing the Curriculum

Peter Olivia’s 10 Axioms about CURRICULUM DESIGN that teachers need as Reminders

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary

and desirable
One of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Societal development and
knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing condition
requires new curriculum designs. Because of this, teachers should respond to the changes
that occur in schools and in their context, Societal development and knowledge revolution
come so fast that the designs.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes

brought about by current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles,
new knowledge, and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum
changes. A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is
gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes
overlap for long periods of time.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers
who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should
know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the
curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes. This will ensure an
effective and long lasting change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some

aspects of curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when
possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect
of curriculum designing. Any significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad
range of stakeholders to gain their understanding, support, and input.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of

alternatives. A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach,
philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what
methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination,

evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the
curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and
technology appear, the curriculum must change.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather

than a "piecemeal". A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly
establish intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should
equip teaching staff pedagogically.

9. Curriculum A curriculum design is composed of desire systematic preces with set of

procedures, needed materials and resources and procedure re which can be placed in a
matrix. reference evaluation

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum the de Curriculum
planners and designers should begin with existing Simp sciculum. An existing design is a
good any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how in the design a curriculum
design a curriculum by identifying its components. For most curricul the major
components or elements are answers to the following a sim

questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intender less Learning Outcomes)

2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter) to t In

3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed (Teaching-Learning Methods)

4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured (Assessment of Achieved Learning
Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus or a lesson
plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the
common components for all of them are almost the same. However some schools, institutions or
departments may add other minor parts or trimmings to the design.

Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide includes (1)
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as
behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods and (4)
Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components of elements is described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student's point of view; it is desired learning outcome that
is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the learners under the
guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum designer. the beginning of the learning journey is the
learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what
to accomplish

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are expressed
in action words found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl,
2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, refer to the taxonomy
made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented and Time-bound.
For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of
Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes.

For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in the
desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the
end of the lesson.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after
completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to:

Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example, rather
than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why... it should be: 'Students must have
explained the reasons why...' This helps students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning.
It will also help curricularists devise appropriate assessment tasks.

Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts,
theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out
procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and
communicating results). In some contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing
attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting
content, you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the
content in previous lessons:

Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is
purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.

Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An effective curriculum is
progressive, leading students towards building on previous lessons. Contents which are too basic or
too advanced for the development levels of learners make students
reffect current knowledge and concepts.

III. References

Interdisciplinar Educatio to 12 Activity Guide, An 1. Project Wild (1992) K Conservation and

Environmental Suppleme Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, M

The reference follows the content. It tells where the content subject matter has been taken. The
reference may be a book, a modu or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and
possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.

2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introducti to Physical Science. Houghton
Mifflin Co. Boston MA

3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Cour Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City

4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). Th Beaching Profession 2nd Ed. Lorimar
Publishing Inc. Quezon C

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

that These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. to keep in mind the teaching
strategies studen is always good will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and
mak them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation competition as well as
individualism or independent learning among the students. For example:

Cooperative learning activities allow students to work togethe Students are guided to learn on their
own to find solutions t their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the learner Democratic
process is encouraged, and each one contribute to the success of learning. Students learn from each
other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the curriculum.

Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree of
independence to lean how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast learners.
Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a healthy
manner, allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals in their adult life
are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive
world.

The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended. Online
learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but these need to be
planned carefully to be effective.

There are some examples of very simple teaching-learning methods with detailed steps that you
can start using as you begin teaching.

Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instruction: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Ornstien & Hunkins, 2018)

Detailed Steps:

1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes: Begin lesson with a short statement of objective or desired
lesson learning outcomes.

2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite learning.

3. Present new materials: Present materials in small, sequenced manner.

4. Explain: Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.

5. Practice: Provide active practice for all students.

6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide seatwork activities.

7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess students comprehension.

8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.

9. Assess performance. Obtain student success rate of 80 percent or more during practice session.

10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instruction: Madeline Hunter Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)

1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize main points.

2. Anticipatory set. Focus student's attention on new lesson. Stimulate interest in the new materials.

3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale or how it will be useful.
4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new

lesson; present materials in sequenced steps.

5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations throughout the lesson

6. Check for understanding. Monitor students' work bel they become involved in lesson activities,
check to see the understand directions or tasks.

7. Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and che their answers. Again monitor
understanding.

8. Teaching when it is reasonably sure that students can work on their with understanding and
minimal frustration.

C. Mastery Learning: JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)

1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to leam 2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on
the whole gro

instruction. 3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students check their own paper.

4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and no mastery groups (80% is considered
mastery)

5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to maste group. Give corrective (practice/drill)
to non-mastery group.

6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teache time and support for each group based
on group size an performance.

7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.

8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students sho achieve mastery by the summative test.

9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with correcth instructions (small study groups,
individual tutoring, alternati instructional materials, extra homework, reading materia VI. Ass
practice and drill).

D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good and Jere Brophy ( assessm Ornstein and Hunkins, 2018)

1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homewori provide review exercises.

2. Development. Promote students understanding, provie controlled practice.

3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlle practice.

4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyon involved, sustain momentum.

5. Accountability. Check the students work.

6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide revie problems.

7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further maintain and enhance learning.

Teaching-Learning Environment

In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is the teaching learning
environment. Brian Castaldi in 1987 suggested four criteria in the provision of the environment or
learning spaces in designing a curriculum. These criteria include (1) adequacy, (2) suitability, (3)
efficiency and (4) economy.

1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual learning space or classrooms. Is the classroom large enough
for student's mobility for class interaction and collaborative work. Is there enough light and
ventilation so that the learning space is conducive, and safe for learning? To provide learning
condition that will provide opportunities that will develop the 21" century skills, there must be a
provision for the utilization of technology for teaching and learning and the use of the cyberspace.

2. Suitability- This relates to planned activities. Suitability should consider chronological and
developmental ages of learners. Also to be considered will be the socio-cultural, economic even
religious background of the learners.

3. Efficiency- This refers to operational and instructional effectiveness.

4. Economy- This refers to cost effectiveness. How much is needed to provide instructional
materials?

V. Assessment/Evaluation

Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive
information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this
information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This
should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are
appropriately reflective and self-critical.

Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can be viewed
as an extension of self- assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests
that students can learn to judge each other's work as reliably as staff.

Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the
student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help student learn more) or summative
(expressing a judgment on student's achievement by reference to tasks involve an element stated
criteria). Many of both, e.g. an assignment that returned to the student with detailed comments.
assessm is marked
Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of mark or grades. This helps the teacher
make decisions about the progres performance of the students.

Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths weakneses of their work than by
knowing the mark or grade gi to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks (including unse
examinations) should include an element of formative feedback possible.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curricula Designs

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan whitend is a mini curriculum, similar
components will also be used in mak a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other
curricul projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, t Conte fundamental
components include the following:

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)

3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)

4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

Simply put, curriculum design is the organization of curriculum components. All other additional
components are trimmings that each designer may add. This may be institutional template or
suggested by other curriculum experts or required by educational agencies like the Department of
Education, Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional Regulation
Commission to achieve a specifi purpose of such agency