MODULE-III

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

1. Illumination:

Syllabus: Light sources, Terminologies, Laws of illumination; Types of lamps, Lighting calculations;
Interior Lighting - Industrial lighting; Exterior lighting- Street lighting and Flood lighting.

1.1 Introduction:
 Illumination differs from light every much, though generally these terms are used more or less
synonymously.

 Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result of that light on surfaces on which it
falls.

 Thus the illumination makes the surface look more or less bright with certain colour and it is this
brightness and colour which the eye sees and interrupts as something useful or pleasant or otherwise.

 Light may be produced by passing electric current through filaments as in the incandescent lamps,
through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable gases as in neon and other gas tubes.

 In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the passage
electric current through mercury vapour.

 Some bodies reflect light in some measure, and when illuminated from an original source they become
secondary source of light. The good example is the moon, which illuminates earth by means of the
reflected light originating in the sun.

1.2 Sources of Light

Types of Light Sources

There are countless sources of light, but they can all be categorized under either of the two following
categories-

 Natural sources
 Artificial sources

1.2.1. Natural Light Sources:

The universe is filled with objects that emit light. Some light from these sources reaches the earth. The
following things in nature have the ability to emit light:

 The Sun is the major source of light for the earth. The sun is a massive ball of fire, at the centre of which
nuclear fusion produces massive energy. This energy comes out as heat and light. The light from the sun
is one of the major factors behind the sustainability of life on earth.

 Every other star produces light too, but only a small or no amount of it reaches the earth because of the
huge distance.
  The moon provides light as well but it cannot produce light on its own. The light that we get from the
moon is the light reflected by it from the sun.

 Some living organisms have the ability to produce light too. It is called bioluminescence. It is the effect
of certain chemical reactions within the organism. Fireflies, jellyfish, glow-worm, certain deep-sea
plants, and microorganisms can be cited as examples.

 Certain other natural phenomena such as lightning and volcanic eruptions also emit light.

1.2.2 Artificial Light Sources:

Apart from natural sources, light can be produced artificially too. The different light sources produced
artificially can be put under three broad categories-

 Incandescent Sources:
When certain objects are heated to a high temperature, they begin to emit light. Both infrared and visible
light is produced in the process.
Example- Candle, incandescent lamp.

 Luminescent Sources:
Light can be produced by accelerating charges in a luminescent material. One common way of doing it is by
passing current through the material.
Example- Fluorescent tube light, electric bulb

 Gas Discharge Sources:

Passing electricity through certain gases at very low pressure can produce light too.
Example – Neon lamp, Sodium lamp.
1.3 Terminologies in Illumination

(i).Light

 The radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation to the human eye is known
as light. Light is expressed in lumen-hours.

(ii) Luminous Flux

 The energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from a luminous body is termed as luminous
flux. The luminous flux is denoted by the symbol ‘ϕ’ and is measured in lumens.

(iii) Plane-Angle

 An angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines is called a plane angle. It is denoted
by symbol ‘θ’ and is measured in degree or radians.
Mathematically, the plane-angle is given by,

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆, 𝜽 =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔

(iv) Solid Angle

 An angle subtended at a point in a space by an area, i.e., the angle enclosed in the volume formed by
numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at a point is called the solid angle. The solid angle is
denoted by symbol ‘ω′ and is measured in steradian.

Mathematically, it is given by,

Area
Solid Angle , ω =
Radius2

(v) Lumen

 Lumen is the unit of luminous flux. Lumen is defined as the total luminous flux emitted by a source of
one candle power for unit solid angle in all the directions.
Mathematically,
Lumen=Candle power of source × solid angle (or) CP X ω

(vi) Candle Power (C P):

 The candle power of a source is defined as the number of lumens emitted by that source in a unit solid
angle in a given direction.

C.P= Lumen/steradian or candela

(vii) Illumination (E) :

 llumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.

 It is represented by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux (or lumen/m2).

E=Flux/Area= C.P x /A Lux

(viii) Lux or meter candle

 It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous lux falling per square meter on the surface
which is perpendicular to the rays of light from source of one candle power and one meter away from it.
(ix) Foot Candle

 It defined as luminous flux falling per square foot on the surface which is perpendicular to the rays of
light from source of one candle power and one foot away from it.

(x) Brightness or Luminance (L):

 It is defined as luminous intensity per unit projected area of a given surface in a given direction.
I
L Cd / m 2
A
Where

I= Luminous Intensity (candela), A= Projected area (m2)

(xi) Mean Horizontal Candle Power (M.H.C.P):

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light.

(xii)Mean Spherical Candle Power (M.S.C P):

 It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions and in all planes from the source of light.

MSCP= Total Flux/4

(xiii) Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (M.H.S.C.P):

 It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions above or below horizontal plane passing
through the source of light.

(xiv) Reduction Factor:

 Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power (MSCP) to its mean
horizontal candle power (MHCP).

(xv) Lamp Efficiency:

 It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input.

 It is expressed in Lumens / Watt.

(xvi) Space Height Ratio:

 It is the ratio of horizontal distance between lamps and the height of their mountings.

(xvii) Utilization Factor or Co-efficient of utilization (UF):

 It is the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane and the total lumens given out by the lamp.

(xviii) Maintenance Factor (MF):

 It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination under clear and clean
conditions.
(xix) Depreciation Factor (DF):

 It is the ratio of initial illumination to the maintained illumination on the working plane. DF > 1 always.

(xx) Glare:

 Brightness within the field of vision such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference
with the vision of eye fatigue. This is found in car head lights.

Incandescent Lamp
An electric light bulb or lamp that produces light by heating a filament wire to a high temperature until it glows
is known as incandescent bulb. The incandescent bulb was invented by an American inventor, named Thomas
Alva Edison.
The incandescent bulb is an electric lamp that works on the principle of incandescence that means it emits light
by the heating of a filament. The incandescent lamps come in different sizes with different voltages and
wattages.
Construction of Incandescent Lamp
The construction and the parts of an incandescent lamp is shown in the figure below.

The most important part of the incandescent lamp is its filament. The filament is made of specially treated
tungsten to provide it the necessary ductility and mechanical strength. The filament material has a low
temperature coefficient of resistance which is positive.
For the tungsten filament, the cold resistance is about 1/5th of the hot resistance of the filament and its operating
temperature is about 2700 °C to 3000 °C. At this high temperature, the filament material does not sublimate.
Also, the melting point of tungsten is 3400 °C, thus it can work at such a high temperature and its lumens per
watt efficiency depends upon the working temperature.
In the incandescent lamp, the tungsten filament. supported by the thin support wires, is enclosed in a glass
cover which is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas. The inert gas used to fill the lamp is argon and
nitrogen, which prevents the oxidation of the filament.
In practice, the incandescent lamps below 40 W are not filled with the gas. It is because, a lot of heat is wasted
in the small sized lamps due to convectional flow of the gas which will transfer the heat from the filament to
the glass walls of the lamp, and this will reduce the lumens emitted by the filament.
The type and color used for the glass cover produce a vital effect on the quality of light produced by the
incandescent lamp, for example, the milky glass cover gives a light output which is almost natural in effect like
day light.

Working of Incandescent Lamp

The incandescent lamps work on the principle of incandescence that means light is emitted by the heating of a
filament.
In case of incandescent lamp, the electric current is passed through a thin metal (commonly tungsten) filament,
which causes the filament to heat. Once the filament is heated, it flows to emit light.
Filament of Incandescent Lamp
In present days, incandescent lamps are available in different wattage ratings such as 25, 40, 60, 75, 100 and
200 watts etc. There are different shapes of bulbs, but basically, all are rounded in shape. There are mainly three
materials used for producing the filament of incandescent lamps, and these are carbon, tantalum, and tungsten.
Carbon was previously used for filament material, but presently tungsten is used most for the purpose.
The melting point of carbon filament is about 3500oC, and the operating temperature of this filament is about
1800oC hence the chance of evaporation is quite less. Because of that carbon filament, incandescent lamps are
free from darkening due to filament evaporation. Darkening of filament lamp occurs when molecules of
filament material are deposited on the inner wall of the glass bulb due to evaporation of filament during
operations.

This darkening becomes prominent after the long life span of the lamp. The efficiency of carbon filament lamp
is not good it is about 4.5 lumens per watt. Tantalum was used as the filament, but its efficiency is much poor, it
is about 2 lumens per watt. This is because tantalum is very rarely used as filament element.

The most widely used filament material now a day is tungsten because of its high luminous efficacy. It can give
18 lumens per watt when it operates at 2000oC. This efficacy can be up to 30 lumens per watt when it operates
at 2500oC. The high melting point is a major criterion for filament material as it has to work at very high
temperature without being evaporated.
Although tungsten has the little bit poorer melting point than that of carbon but still tungsten is more preferable
as filament material. This is because of high operating temperatures which makes tungsten much luminous
efficient. The mechanical strength of tungsten filament is quite high to withstand mechanical vibrations.

Advantages of Incandescent Lamps

The main advantages of the incandescent lamps are as −
 They can be operated directly on the standard distribution voltage.
 Incandescent lamps have unity operating power factor.
 Their operation is not affected by the surrounding air temperature.
 They have good radiation characteristics in the luminous range.
 The incandescent lamps are available in various shapes and shades.

Disadvantages of Incandescent Lamps

The disadvantages of the incandescent lamps are given below.
  They waste large amount of input energy in the form of heat, thus the incandescent lamps are not energy
efficient.
 Incandescent lamps have short life span.
 Incandescent lamps are the warm light sources.

Applications of Incandescent Lamps

The applications of the incandescent lamps are given as follows −
 Incandescent lamps are widely used in household and commercial lightings.
 Other applications of the incandescent lamps include table lamps, hallway lighting, accent lighting,
closets, etc.

Fluorescent Lamp

A fluorescent lamp, also called fluorescent tube, is a low pressure mercury vapor gas-discharge lamp that
works on the principle of fluorescence to emit visible light.
When an electric current is passed through the fluorescent tube, it excites the mercury vapor which produces
UV rays that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow.

Construction of Fluorescent Lamp

The basic construction of a fluorescent tube lamp is shown in Figure-1.

The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. Thus, due to low pressure, the lamp is made in the
form of a long tube whose inside walls are coated with some phosphor. The tube is filled with a small amount
of mercury vapor and a small amount of argon gas.
At both ends of the tube, the electrodes are attached. The electrodes are of spiral form, made of tungsten and
coated with an electron emitting material. A choke is also connected in series with the tube filament that
provides a voltage impulse for starting the fluorescent lamp and once the lamp is started, it acts as a ballast.
The lamp filament is connected to a starter switch which is a small cathode glow lamp with bimetallic strip at
the electrodes.

Working of Fluorescent Lamp

The circuit diagram of a fluorescent lamp is shown Figure-2.
When the circuit is energized, nearly full supply voltage appears across the starter terminals due to low
resistance of the filaments and a negligible current flows through the choke. The starter switch is filled with
argon gas. This argon gas ionized and a glow appears inside the starter switch, which heats up the bimetallic
strip carrying a moving contact. In a while, the bimetallic strip bends and short circuits the starter terminals.
This results in a high current to flow through the filaments F1 and F2 and the choke circuit. The filaments are
coated with oxides of barium and strontium, resulting in thermionic emission which can ionize the argon gas
inside the tube.
In the meanwhile, the bimetallic strip of the starter switch cools down and breaks open the starter circuit. This
sudden opening of the starter circuit causes an abrupt change of current or flux linking the choke coil. As a
result, a high voltage surge is induced in the choke which makes one of the filament at a very high potential
with respect to the other filament. This momentary high potential difference between the filaments ionizes the
mercury and argon present inside the lamp tube and results in the passes of current between the two electrodes
inside the tube.
The excited mercury vapor in the tube produces ultraviolet rays, which are falling on the phosphor coating
results in fluorescence, i.e., visible light is emitted from the phosphor coating.

Advantages of Fluorescent Lamp

The main advantages of the fluorescent lamps are given as follows −
 Fluorescent lamps have high luminous efficiency.
 They have long life span.
 There running cost is low.
 The heat output is also low for a fluorescent lamp.

Disadvantages of Fluorescent Lamp

Following are the disadvantages of the fluorescent lamps −
 Fluorescent lamps suffer from stroboscopic effect.
 The choke used in fluorescent lamps produces magnetic hum causing disturbance.
 For fluorescent lamps, small wattage requiring a large number of fittings.

Applications of Fluorescent Lamp

Fluorescent lamps can be used in many industrial, commercial and residential applications. Some applications
of the fluorescent lamps are as −
  Fluorescent lamps can provide light output in large area, thus these lamps are suitable for lighting in
industrial applications.
 Fluorescent lamps are used for lighting in offices as they provide uniform light level.
 In residential applications, the fluorescent lamps provide effective lighting for kitchens, valences, and
fascia, etc.
 Fluorescent lamps are also used in classroom lighting and retail lighting, etc.

LED Lamp
An optoelectronic device which emits light based on the principle of electroluminescence is known as LED
(Light Emitting Diode) lamp.
Electroluminescence is the emission of light due to the interaction of an electric field with a suitable solid. It
was noticed in 1962 that a forward biased gallium-arsenide junction was found to be an efficient emitter of
radiation.

In case of electroluminescent p-n junctions, when biased in the forward direction, some of the energy
dissipated is converted into light and hence, these are also called as semi-conductor lamps.

Construction of LED Lamp

For the construction of LED lamps, following semiconductor materials are used −
 Gallium Phosphide (Green / Red)
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Yellow / Red)
 Gallium Nitride (White)

In order to construct an LED lamp, a layer of P-type semiconductor material is placed above the N-type
semiconductor layer. A metal film is used on the P-type layer to provide anode connection to the device.
Similarly, a gold-film is formed on the N-type layer to provide cathode connection. The gold-film also provides
reflection of light from the bottom surface of the device. This increases the efficiency of the LED lamp. The
above figure shows the basic construction of an LED lamp.

Working of LED Lamp

When a DC power supply is applied to an LED lamp in forward bias, the majority charge carriers start drifting,
i.e., electrons towards the positive terminal and holes towards the negative terminal of the source. At the PN
junction, the recombination of electrons and holes takes place, due to the recombination of these charge
carriers, the energy is released either in the form of heat or light.

The semiconductor materials such as gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), gallium
nitride (GaN), etc. emit light on the recombination of electrons and holes at the PN junction. The electrons in
these semiconductor materials lose their energy by the emission of light photons. If the semiconductor material
is translucent, the emitted light at the PN junction will be transferred outside. In this way, an LED lamp emits
light.

Advantages of LED Lamps

The advantages of using LED lamps are as follows −
 The operating cost is very less.
 They are compact in size.
 LED lamps provide easy control of light.
 Remote switching and control can be implemented in the LED lamps.
 LED lamps have longer life, up to 100000 hours.
 LED lamps are energy efficient and low current consuming.
 These lamps are mechanically robust.
 LED lamps provide excellent color rendering.
 These lamps are environment friendly, as not having any toxic content.

Disadvantages of LED Lamps

Listed below are some of the disadvantages of using LED lamps −
 The initial cost of the LED lamps is very high.
 As LED lamps are semiconductor devices. Thus, they are temperature sensitive and temperature
dependent.
 LED lamps require DC supply, therefore, rectification unit is required in the lamp circuit.
 The high intensity light produced by an LED lamp has impact on the insects.
Applications of LED Lamps
LED lamps are used in the following applications −
 For domestic and commercial lightings.
 Used as indicating lamps.
 Used as bi-color indicators.
 LED lamps are also used as fault indicators in control panels.
 In display boards.
 Used for decorative lighting.
 In mobile phone and wrist watches screens.
 Used as head lamps in automobiles.

Lighting Schemes

1. Interior Lighting
2. Exterior Lighting

Interior Lighting
Lights in interior spaces play a major role in creating desired ambience in a space along with serving the basic
function of lighting up the space for better visual connectivity. There are a variety of types of lighting available
and methods to light up a space. Nowadays there are triple color ambience available to light up a room i.e. like a
complete yellow ambience, a complete crystal white ambience and a mix daylight ambience. The different ways
to enhance the interior spaces are:

(i) Diffused Lighting

(ii) Direct Lighting
(iii) Task Lighting
(iv) Water Lighting
(v) Chandelier Lighting
(vi) Factory Lighting

Lamps for Interior Lighting

The interior lighting designer generally chooses the lamps from among the following lamp types:

 Incandescent lamp
 Fluorescent lamp
 Metal halide lamp
 High pressure sodium

Factory Lighting
Industrial lighting plays a key part in the safety and performance of your business. It’s typically found in
warehouses, factories, manufacturing plants and other hazardous workplaces. If these working environments
aren’t light properly, the various hazards in your workforce are exposed to daily become a lot more dangerous.

The key steps in the design process are:

 1. Identify the requirements.
2. Determine the method of lighting.
3. Select the lighting equipment.
4. Calculate the lighting parameters and adjust the design as required.
5. Determine the control system.
6. Choice of luminaire.
7. Inspect the installation upon completion.

1. Identifying the requirements

This involves gaining a full understanding of what the lighting installation is intended to achieve. This
includes the following:
 Task Requirements
 Illuminance
 Glare
 Mood of the space
 Relation to shape of space
 Things to be emphasized
 Things to hide
 Direction of light
 Interaction of daylight

2. Determine the method of lighting

At this stage, consideration is given to how the light is to be delivered, e.g. will it be recessed, surface
mounted, direct or indirect, or will up-lighting be used, and its primary characteristics, e.g. will it be
prismatic, low brightness or mellow light.
Consideration should be given at this stage to the use of daylight to minimize the need for artificial light.

3. Select the lighting equipment

Once the method of lighting has been selected, the most appropriate light source can then be chosen followed
by the luminaire.

The following attributes should be studied when choosing the light source:
 Light output (lumens)
 Total input wattage
 Efficacy (lumens per Watt)
 Lifetime
 Physical size
 Surface brightness / glare
 Colour characteristics
 Electrical characteristics
 Requirement for control gear
 Compatibility with existing electrical system
 Suitability for the operating environment
A number of factors also affect luminaire choice:
 Characteristics of the light source and control gear
 Luminaire efficiency (% lamp light output transmitted out of the fixture)
 Light distribution
 Glare control
 Finish and appearance
 Size
  Accessibility of components for maintenance
 Ability to handle adverse operating conditions
 Aesthetics
 Thermal management

4. Calculate the lighting parameters

Lighting calculation methods fall into three broad categories:
1. Manual calculation methods
2. Three dimensional modelling
3. Visualisation
Photometric data for light sources and luminaires is commercially available to contribute to these
calculations.

4.1 Manual calculation methods

There are a wide range of manual computation methods for the calculation of different lighting aspects.
These include complex methods for calculating the illuminance from a wide variety of shapes of luminous
objects. The majority of these have now been superseded by computer programs
The Lumen Method was the mainstay for interior lighting and has remained in use as a quick and relatively
accurate method of calculating interior illuminance.
The Lumen Method calculates the average illuminance at a specific level in the space, including an
allowance for the light reflected from the interior surfaces of the room. The calculation method has a set of
assumptions that, if followed, gives a reasonable visual environment.

Inadequate attention to the assumptions will produce poor results.

The basic assumptions are:
 All the luminaires in the room are the same and have the same orientation
 The luminaires do not have a directional distribution and are aimed directly to the floor
 The luminaires are arranged in a uniform array on the ceiling and have the same mounting height
 The luminaires are spaced less than the maximum spacing to mounting height ratio nominated in
the coefficient of utilisation tables
The average illuminance produced by a lighting installation, or the number of luminaires required to achieve
a specific average illuminance, can be calculated by means of utilization factors (UF), a UF being the ratio
of the total flux received by a particular surface to the total lamp flux of the installation.

Lumen method formula

The average illuminance E(h) over a reference surface s can be calculated from the “lumen method”
formula.

where:

 F – the initial bare lamp flux (lumens)

 n – the number of lamps per luminaire
 N – the number of luminaires
 LLF – the total light loss factor
 UF(s) – the utilization factor for the reference surface s of the chosen luminaire
Utilization factors can be determined for any surface or layout of luminaires. The “UF” symbol is normally
shown followed by an extra letter in brackets, to denote the surface, for example, UF(F) is the utilisation
factor for the floor cavity and UF(W) is the utilisation factor for the walls.
Utilization factors are, in practice, only calculated for general lighting systems with regular arrays of
luminaires and for three main room surfaces. The highest of these surfaces, the C surface (for ceiling
cavity), is an imaginary horizontal plane at the level of the luminaires having a reflectance equal to that of the
ceiling cavity.

The lowest surface, the F surface (for floor Cavity), is a horizontal plane at normal working height (i.e. table
height), which is often assumed to be 0.85 m above the floor.
The middle surface, the W surface (for walls), consists of all the walls between the C and F planes.
Although the lighting designer can calculate utilization factors, lighting companies publish utilization factors
for standard conditions for their luminaires. The standard method of presentation is shown below. To use this
table, it is only necessary to know the Room Index and the effective reflectance of the three standard surfaces
(floor cavity, walls and ceiling cavity).
Room Index
The Room Index is a measure of the angular size of the room, and is the ratio of the sum of the plan areas
of the F and C surfaces to the area of the W surface. For rectangular rooms the room index is given by:

Where:

 L – the length of the room

 W – the width of the room
 Hm – the height of the luminaire plane above the horizontal reference plane.
If the room is re-entrant in shape, for example L shaped, then it must be divided into two or more non-re-
entrant sections, which can be treated separately.
Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio (SHR)
The Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio (SHR) is the spacing between luminaires divided by their height
above the horizontal reference plane. It affects the uniformity of illuminance on that plane.
4.3 Visualisation
These are programs that create a perspective rendering of the space in levels of detail that vary from a
block representation of the space, to photographic quality renderings, depending on the sophistication of the
program and the level of detail of the interior to be entered.
The programs fall into two basic types:
 Flux transfer or radiosity calculations
 Ray tracing calculations
The major difference being in how they interpret light from reflective surfaces.

A Lambertian surface is a perfect diffuser, where light is reflected in all directions, irrespective of the angle
of incidence of the light such that irrespective of the viewing angle the surface has the same luminance. A
specular surface is a mirror like surface, where the angle of reflection of the light is the same as the angle of
incidence.
Left: Lambertian surface; Middle: Specular surface; Right: Semi-specular surface

A real life surface is a combination of both surfaces (semi-specular) and has both specular and diffuse
characteristics. Some materials are more specular while others are more diffuse.

A flux transfer or radiosity program treats all surfaces as diffuse or Lambertian surfaces, as a result their
rendering tends to appear flat with soft shadow details. It will tend to overestimate the uniformity. Ray
tracing traces the individual rays of light from the source to the eye as it reflects from surface to surface
around the room. As a result ray tracing can allow for the specular component of the surfaces.
Some programs calculate the entire lighting by ray tracing while others calculate the space on a flux
transfer basis and have an overlay of ray tracing of specific areas to improve the quality of the rendering.
When ray tracing is added, reflections are added in polished surfaces and shadows become sharper.
Visualisation programs are a useful tool in the presentation of a design, as a tool for the designer to check
that the design is consistent with his own visualisation of the space, and to model specific lighting solutions.
The programs are still calculation tools and not design programs.

5. Determine the control system

The effectiveness and efficiency of any lighting installation is affected as much by the control system as by
the light sources and fixtures chosen.
Give consideration to:
 Providing multiple switches to control the number of lights that come on at any one time. Using one
switch to turn on all the lights in a large room is very inefficient.

 Placing switches at the exits from rooms and using two-way switching to encourage lights to be
turned off when leaving the room.

 Using ‘smart’ light switches and fittings which use movement sensors to turn lights on and off
automatically. These are useful in rooms used infrequently where lights may be left on by mistake, or
for the elderly and disabled.
 Using timers, daylight controls and motion sensors to switch outdoor security lights on and off
automatically. controls are particularly useful for common areas, such as hallways, corridors and
stairwells, in multi-unit housing.
 Using solar powered lighting for garden and security lights.

 Using dimmer controls for incandescent lights (including halogens). This can save energy and also
increase bulb life. Most standard fluorescent lamps cannot be dimmed, but special dimmers and lamps
are available. If lamps are to be dimmed it is important to ensure that the correct equipment is used,
especially when retrofitting more energy efficient lamps.
6. Choice of Luminaire

The performance of a luminaire should be considered just as carefully as its cost. In the long term a well
designed, well constructed luminaire will be cheaper than a poor quality unit; and the salient features of a
good quality luminaire are:
 Sound mechanical and electrical construction and a durable finish
 Adequate screening of high luminance lamps to minimize discomfort and glare
 Adequate heat dissipation to prevent over-heating of the lamp, wiring and ancillary equipment
 High light output ratio with the appropriate light distribution
 Ease of installation, cleaning and maintenance

Exterior Lighting
Exterior lighting also plays a very important role on the structure as well as the surroundings. They create a
direct impact on the city skyline and the night-scapes of the city. They serve as a street light for the surrounding
area creating a safe environment around and making it useful for the adjoining areas. These external lights also
enhance the elevations of the structures and the road line perspective of the roads along the city. Here also there
are a variety of types of external lightings.

(i) Street Lighting

(ii) Flood Lighting

Street Lighting
Street lighting design is the design of street lighting such that people can safely continue their travels on the
road. Street lighting schemes never brings the same appearance of daylight, but provide sufficient light for
people to see important objects required for traversing the road. Street lighting plays an important role in:
 Reducing the risk of night-time accidents
 Assisting in the protection of buildings/property (discouraging vandalism)
 Discouraging crime
 Creating a secure environment for habitation
Basic Features of Street Light Luminaires
The basic features of a street lighting luminaires are:

 Roadway luminaires are mounted horizontally and thus have fixed vertical aiming.
 Roadway lighting luminaires have particular intensity distributions which are desired to light long
narrow horizontal stripes on one side of the luminaire, while minimizing the intensities on the other side
of the luminaire.
 The intensity distributions up and down the narrow strip are generally the same.
 Any fixed aimed luminaire which does not have this type of intensity distribution is called an area
luminaire.
Main Objectives of Street Lighting Design Scheme
The main objectives of street lighting design scheme are given below:
1. Perfect visual sensation for safety
2. Illuminated environment for quick movement of the vehicles
3. Clear view of objects for comfortable movement of the road users.
Which Lamps are Used in Street Lighting?
Various types of lamps are used in street lighting luminaires. They are

1. High pressure sodium lamp

2. Metal Halide Lamps
3. Low pressure sodium lamps
4. Incandescent Lamp (not recommended)
5. LED
6. CFL (used in Lanes or streets only not widely)

Main Factors in the Street Lighting Design Scheme

1. Luminance Level Should be Proper Luminance always influences the contrast sensitivity of the
obstructions with respect to the back ground. If the street is brighter, then darker surroundings makes the
car driver adapted, unless the driver will be unable to perceive the objects in the surroundings. As per
CIE, 5m away from the road on both sides will be lit by Illuminance level at least 50% of that on the
road.
2. Luminance Uniformity must be achieved. To provide visual comfort to the viewer’s eyes, enough
luminous uniformity is needed. Luminous uniformity means the ratio between minimum luminance
levels to average luminance level, i.e.

It is termed as longitudinal uniformity ratio as it is measured along the line passing through the viewers
position in the middle of the traffic facing the traffic flow.
3. Degree of Glare Limitation is always taken into Design Scheme
Glare means visual discomfort due to high luminance. There are two types of glare created by the street
light luminaires, first type is disability glare and second type is discomfort glare. Disability glare is not a
strong factor, rather discomfort glare is a common factor due to unplanned street lighting scheme.
4. Lamp Spectra for Visual Sharpness depends on the Proper Luminaries
It is very much essential to make an object as per its size and dimension.
5. Effectiveness of Visual Guidance is also an important factor
Pole Arrangement Schemes in Street Lighting Design
Single Sided
When the width (W) of the road is nearly equal to the pole height (H), i.e. W = H then the poles are arranged in
one side only. Generally pole height is available of 10 meter.
The span between two poles is equal to the road width.
Double Sided
When the width (W) of the road is nearly double the pole height (H), i.e. W = 2H then the poles are arranged
along both sides in opposite to each other manner.The span between two poles may not be equal to the road
width.

Staggered Sided or Zigzag Pattern

When the width (W) of the road is nearly 1.5 times of the pole height (H), i.e. W = 1.5 H then the poles are
arranged in both sides in zigzag manner.
The span between two poles may not be equal to the road width.

Central Verge Position

When the width (W) of the road is much greater than the pole height (H), i.e. W>>H then the poles are arranged
in the central verge of the road. The luminaires are made to face towards both the road surfaces from the central
verge. The span between two poles may not equal to the road width.

Street Light Design Parameters

Street light design parameter is measured or evaluated or simulated over the span of the road.

1. Average maintained luminance level in Lux

2. Over all uniformity (U0)of Illuminance

 for entire area (span × width) of the road
3. Longitudinal Uniformity

is measured along the length of the road (centre length by default)

4. Transverse uniformity

is measured across the road along a line passing through the nadir point.
5. Disability glare is expressed in threshold increment.
6. Discomfort Glare is expressed in glare control mark.
7. Unit Power Density is measured for unit length.
Where,

where no. of the luminaire (n) = 1 for single sided pole arrangement
= 2 for double sided pole arrangement
= 2 for staggered sides pole arrangement.
Flood Lighting
The flooding of large surfaces with light through powerful projectors, where the light sources are concentrated
into narrow light beams using specific reflectors is known as flood lighting. Flood lighting is an artificial light
with high-intensity, broad beam.

Main Objectives of Flood Lighting

1. Safety and security
2. Amenity
3. Decoration
4. Commercial interior

Purpose of Flood Lighting

The flood lighting may be employed for the following purposes −
 To enhance the beauty of the ancient monuments at night.
 To illuminate the railway yards, car parking, sport stadiums, construction sites, etc.
 To illuminate the advertising boards and show-cases, etc.

Location and Mounting of Projectors

In practice, there are two possible locations of projectors for flood lighting, which are −
  For small buildings, uniform flood lighting is used. Therefore, the flood lights can be placed on other
building or on a suitable point at distances of not more than about 60 meters. The light should fall on the
building nearly perpendicular to the building.
 For large or tall buildings, non-uniform flood lighting is used. Thus, the flood lights should be so located
that the contours and features of the building are well defined and they should enhance the beauty of the
building or monument.

Types of Flood Lighting Projectors

According to the angle of beam-spread, the projectors used in flood lighting can be classified into following
three types viz. −

Projector Angle of Beam Spread Distance of Projection

Narrow Beam The angle of Beam spread ranges These are used for distances more
Projectors from 12° to 25°. than 70 meters.

Medium Angle The angle of Beam spread ranges These are used for distances
Projectors from 25° to 40°. between 30 to 70 meters.

Wide Angle Projectors The angle of Beam spread ranges These are used for distances below
from 40° to 90°. 30 meters.

Calculation of Flood Lighting

Let's check how to calculate the number of projectors required in order to get a required level of illumination in
flood lighting.

Step 1 – Level of Illumination Required

In this step, the illumination level required is to be calculated. The level of illumination required depends upon
the type of building, the purpose of flood lighting and the amount of conflicting light in the vicinity, etc.

Step 2 – Type of Projector

This step involves the determination of type of projector for the flood lighting. The following two
considerations enter into the choice of a projector, viz. −
 Beam size – It determines the area covered by the beam.
 Light output – It determines the illumination provided.
Also, the beam angle of the projector is decided according to the distance of the projector from the surface.

Step 3 – Calculate the Number of Projectors

For any desired light intensity over a definite surface, the number of projectors required is obtained from the
following formula −
Where,
 'A' is the surface area to be illuminated in m2.
 'E' is the level of illumination required in lumens/m2.
 Depreciation factor – it is defined as the ratio of illumination under ideal condition to the illumination
under normal condition.
 Waste light factor – It is defined as the ratio of total lumens emitted by the source to the total lumens
available after waste of light. It is about 1.2 for rectangular areas, 1.5 for irregular areas and objects like
statues and monuments, etc.
 Coefficient of utilization – It is defined as the ratio of beam lumens to lamp lumens. It is also known
as Beam Factor and its value lies between 0.3 and 0.5.

Applications of Flood Lighting

Flood lighting is widely used in the following fields −
 Architectural building and monuments
 Ports
 Frontage lighting of buildings
 Manufacturing plants
 Construction sites, etc.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) - Components in UPS, Functionality and Calculation of ratings for
UPS components to a specific load.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is defined as a piece of electrical equipment which can be used as an
immediate power source to the connected load when there is a failure in the main input power source.

Major Roles of a UPS

When there is any failure in main power source, the UPS will supply the power for a short time. This is the
prime role of UPS. In addition to that, it can also able to correct some general power problems related to utility
services in varying degrees.

Types of UPS
Generally, the UPS system is categorized into On-line UPS, Off- line UPS and Line interactive UPS. Other
designs include Standby on-line hybrid, Standby-Ferro, Delta conversion On-Line.

Off-line UPS
This UPS is also called as Standby UPS system which can give only the most basic features. Here, the primary
source is the filtered AC mains (shown in solid path in figure 1).
When the power breakage occurs, the transfer switch will select the backup source (shown in dashed path in
figure 1).

Thus we can clearly see that the stand by system will start working only when there is any failure in mains. In
this system, the AC voltage is first rectified and stored in the storage battery connected to the rectifier.

When power breakage occurs, this DC voltage is converted to AC voltage by means of a power inverter, and is
transferred to the load connected to it.
This is the least expensive UPS system and it provides surge protection in addition to back up. The transfer time
can be about 25 milliseconds which can be related to the time taken by the UPS system to detect the utility
voltage that is lost. The block diagram is shown below.

On-line UPS
In this type of UPS, double conversion method is used. Here, first the AC input is converted into DC by
rectifying process for storing it in the rechargeable battery.

This DC is converted into AC by the process of inversion and given to the load or equipment which it is
connected (figure 2).

This type of UPS is used where electrical isolation is mandatory. This system is a bit more costly due to the
design of constantly running converters and cooling systems.

Here, the rectifier which is powered with the normal AC current is directly driving the inverter. Hence it is also
known as Double conversion UPS. The block diagram is shown below.
When there is any power failure, the rectifier have no role in the circuit and the steady power stored in the
batteries which is connected to the inverter is given to the load by means of transfer switch.
Once the power is restored, the rectifier begins to charge the batteries. To prevent the batteries from overheating
due to the high power rectifier, the charging current is limited. During a main power breakdown, this UPS
system operates with zero transfer time.

The reason is that the backup source acts as a primary source and not the main AC input. But the presence of
inrush current and large load step current can result in a transfer time of about 4-6 milliseconds in this system.
Line Interactive UPS

For small business and departmental servers and webs, line interactive UPS is used. This is more or less same as
that of off-line UPS.

The difference is the addition of tap changing transformer. Voltage regulation is done by this tap-changing
transformer by changing the tap depending on input voltage. Additional filtering is provided in this UPS result
in lower transient loss. The block diagram is shown below.

UPS Applications
Applications of a UPS include:

 Data Centers
 Industries
 Telecommunications
 Hospitals
 Banks and insurance
 Some special projects (events)
Calculation of ratings for UPS components to a specific load

How to size a UPS

1. List all equipment to be protected by the UPS.
2. List the amps and volts for each device.
3. Multiply the VA by the number of pieces of equipment to get the VA subtotals.
4. Add the VA subtotals together.
5. Multiply the total by 1.2 to get the grand total. ...
6. Use the grand total to select a UPS.

Batteries
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its active materials directly into electric
energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. This type of reaction involves the
transfer of electrons from one material to another via an electric circuit.

Types of Batteries
Basically, all the electrochemical cells and batteries are classified into two types:

 Primary (non-rechargeable)
 Secondary (rechargeable)
Even though there are several other classifications within these two types of batteries, these two are the basic
types. Simply speaking, Primary Batteries are non-rechargeable batteries i.e., they cannot be recharged
electrically while the Secondary Batteries are rechargeable batteries i.e., they can be recharged electrically.

Primary Batteries
A Primary Battery is one of the simple and convenient sources of power for several portable electronic and
electrical devices like lights, cameras, watches, toys, radios etc. As they cannot be recharged electrically, they
are of “use it and when discharged, discard it” type.

Usually, primary batteries are inexpensive, light weight, small and very convenient to use with relatively no or
less maintenance. Majority of the primary batteries that are used in domestic applications are single cell type
and usually come in cylindrical configuration (although, it is very easy to produce them in different shapes and
sizes).

Secondary Batteries

A Secondary Battery is also called as Rechargeable Battery as they can be electrically recharged after discharge.
The chemical status of the electrochemical cells can be “recharged” to their original status by passing a current
through the cells in the opposite direction of their discharge.

Basically, secondary batteries can be used in two ways:

  In the first category of applications, the secondary batteries are essentially used as energy storage
devices where they are electrically connected to a main energy source and also charged by it and also
supplying energy when required. Examples of such applications are Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV),
Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS), etc.
 The second category of applications of secondary batteries are those applications where the battery is
used and discharged as a primary battery. Once it is completely discharged (or almost completely
discharged), instead of discarding it, the battery is recharged with an appropriate charging mechanism.
Examples of such applications are all the modern portable electronics like mobiles, laptops, electric
vehicles, etc.
Energy Density of secondary batteries are relatively lower than that of primary batteries but have other good
characteristics like high power density, flat discharge curves, high discharge rate, low temperature performance.

Nickel Cadmium Battery

A nickel-cadmium cell has two plates. The active material of the positive plate (anode) is Ni(OH)4 and the
negative plate (cathode) is of cadmium (Cd) when fully charged. The electrolyte is a solution of potassium
hydroxide (KOH) with a small addition of lithium hydrate which increases the capacity and life of the battery.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.2.

Since the voltage produced by a single cell is very low, many cells are connected in series to get the desired
voltage output and then this arrangement is known as the nickel-cadmium battery.

Nickel Cadmium Battery Working and Construction

In these batteries, the number of positive plates is one more than that of negative plates. The container of this
battery is electrically connected to the positive plates.

When the cell is fully charged, its positive plate is of Ni(OH)4 and its negative plate is of cadmium (Cd).

Discharging: When the cell discharges, the potassium hydroxide (KOH) is dissociated into potassium (K+) and
hydroxyl (OH–) ions.
 The hydroxyl ions go to cathode and potassium ions go to the anode. The following chemical reaction takes
place during discharging.

Thus, the anode is converted from Ni(OH)4 to NI(OH)2 and cathode is converted from cadmium (Cd) to
cadmium hydroxide [Cd(OH)2]. The strength of the electrolyte remains the same.

Discharging: When the cell discharges, the potassium hydroxide (KOH) is dissociated into potassium (K+) and
hydroxyl (OH–) ions.

The hydroxyl ions go to cathode and potassium ions go to the anode. The following chemical reaction takes
place during discharging.

Thus anode and cathode regain their previous chemical composition without changing the strength of
electrolyte.

Electrical Characteristics of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 The EMF of a fully charged cell is 1.4 V which decreases to 1.3 V rapidly. The average EMF of the cell
is 1.2 V which reduces to 1.0 V when discharged.
 The internal resistance of the cell is very less, even lesser than a lead-acid battery. Due to low
internal resistance these can be operated at very high charge and discharge currents efficiently
and safely.
 The ampere and watt-hour efficiencies of the cell are about 80% and 65% respectively.
Advantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 It has a very long (about 20 years) active life.

 Since the specific gravity of the electrolyte (KOH) does not change. It can be stored indefinitely in either
a discharged or charged state without suffering any ill effects.
 It can withstand peak rates of discharge and charge up to 20 times the normal operating time.
 They have very low open circuit losses.
 The effect of high discharge rate and low operating temperature is very low on the capacity of the
battery as compared to any other type of rechargeable battery.

Disadvantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 It is very expensive.
 The EMF developed by a fully charged cell is only 1.2 V against 2 V of the lead-acid cell.
 Its ingredients are harmful for ecosystem. Therefore, its production and utilization is banned in some
countries.
Applications of Nickel Cadmium Battery
  These are used in small portable electrical appliances.
 The energy density of nickel-cadmium batteries is high. Also, these are lighter and more compact.
Therefore, these are preferred in applications where weight and size of the battery are very important
like in airplanes and helicopters. There these are used to start the engine.

Lithium ion Battery

A Lithium Ion Battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses Lithium based compounds as active raw
material.

Lithium is a highly reactive alkali metal which can act as a very good reducing agent. It has a standard
reduction potential of -(3.04) Volts.

Besides Lithium also has a very low molecular weight of 6.94 grams/mole.

Having a relatively low standard reduction potential and low atomic mass, it has all the needed characteristics to
be used as a raw material in batteries.

Since pure Lithium is highly reactive, it cannot be used in the pure form. Thus we use a Lithium based
compound.

For an average Lithium Ion Battery, here is the construction: -

1. Anode: It is an intercalated compound of Lithium Hexa-Carbide (LiC6). Some batteries also use pure
Graphite and in rare cases, they use Copper.
2. Cathode: It is an intercalated compound of a Lithium Metal Oxide (LiMO2), where M can be a metal
like Cobalt, Manganese, Titanium.
3. Electrolyte: It contains Lithium Hexafluoro Phosphate (LiPF6) dipped in Ethylene Carbonate
solution.
4. Separator: A non-conductive polymer material is used as a separator.

Lithium-ion Battery Working

The rechargeable lithium-ion battery is made of one or more power-generating compartments called cells. Each
cell has essentially three components.- positive electrode, negative electrode and electrolyte.

A positive electrode connects to the battery's positive or + terminal. A negative electrode connects to the
negative or − terminal. And a chemical called an electrolyte in between them.

The positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound called lithium-cobalt oxide
(LiCoO2) or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). The negative electrode is generally made from carbon (graphite).
The electrolyte varies from one type of battery to another.
The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode. The movement of the
lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The
electrical current then flows from the current collector through a device being powered (cell phone, computer,
etc.) to the negative current collector. The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.

While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode releases lithium ions to the cathode,
generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other. When plugging in the device, the opposite reaction
happens, the cathode releases lithium ions and anode receives them. This is how the Lithium-ion battery works.

In this battery, the energy density and power density are most common things of the battery. Generally, the energy
density measures in watt-hours per kilogram (wh/kg) and is the amount of energy the battery can store with
respect to its mass. Power density measures in watts per kilogram (W/kg) and is the amount of power of battery
with respect to its mass.

Advantages :-
1. High Energy Density
2. Extremely High Capacity
3. Light Weight
4. Can Store a Lot of Energy Compared to Its Size and Weight.
5. Can Recharge Fast.
6. Can Recharge Efficiently.

Disadvantages :-
1. Extremely High Initial Cost.
2. The Already High Cost of the Battery is Added to the Protection Circuits, Intelligent Monitoring
Systems, Intelligent Charging Systems, Temperature Controls and other safety features.
3. Explosive and Combustible; A slight overcharge, overdischarge, overcurrent or high temperature can
induce heat that can cause the battery to explode and/or catch fire.
Applications:
 Laws ilumination
There
Thene are tuo main laws D illumination d Casufae

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Inverre 6uaTe law

Statement
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to the
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and th CDutu' b utisation a O.4s. fand he
aweTcQe
umunatton

Soln
Coom Ara
=omx12.m= 20m
TOta Naltage 12xlcoD 200 Wa tts
 TO tai }un radiated y
200X 30 3b,o0 lumen
200 Natts

Pun ea chung bT74 Tota CDRttiuent o

x

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Tllumunation, E =
E lb,200

E 135 lux

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amp tato a uUrenr 0.8 amperes l t ,

PrDduco a tdta ux 326o uumenu

Calulaa (a) the MSCP
thu lamp Cb
RHiuknuy the Rump.
Soln
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Cardl Poue
4TT
326o
4T
Mscp 259. 2 P

b Rtiuer okamp Total un in umens

Input unt
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 326P
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ettenuy
amp input 32

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umen utput =Msepx &olid angle

1178.I Rumen

kumun 0utput 178.

lumen/at Tnput poue 182
8.92s
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and aWeTagL umunation t o b2 So wmen Im thu utsatton

autor uo.48 and dpretiatHon a u t 2 Calulai the ma

phevical Pou per AasnP.
Soln
The Area to be illuniatcd= 20xlo =
200m
TDtalun ued 200x 50 =
0,0oo Rumen
TDtal umen
ien by Lumunau fun dupreialion
8 lampP faitor
wtiiscdion fauo
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.48

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41T
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4 X8

24&
5) A lamp haring a candlk Þoue o 200 n al dierionu
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arnp u long am abore he are talulali the

a) iUmunalon b) Aluminatton at the unbr
C) Tumvatton at t h
ed othe kurfatu withat /leur
 Cp:900
Soln
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CPXw
A
2
7D2 TxCo d
4

A l0o7T m
20m
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ady
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ldOTT
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from thu tigua, d12to2
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E C x too 200 12
d2
(t5.6.2) Is.62
E 0. 372 lun
) A amp haring mean sphevica Candle Pou o 8oo swpendai
at the heighr oq om Caltulai

6) Thu ilumination direirty belous

a) totas fun q th ught
h lomp ar thu urting plane C) Tumination at a potnt Sm

Veti cally belous tu

auay on t h honizonta Plans vm t

anp
Soln
msep 800, 1omm

a) Total Hun The ught

TDta un, d: Niscp x 4
8oo 4

loo53 Rumen
The illumuration juut belous OSCP

the amp
800

(lo)

C Tuminarton at asm away from plan

E x Cos
X
2
/9 lDm
8Do 3
E x (0-97)
lo2
.Sm
E7.301. lun COse 10
.s+lo
2

CoAe 997
ARoom 1m 6m illuminalis by twerty.200N
amp. Th M.3.C.P D each Ramp s sD. Pueng
a d u p e ualuon fator 12 a n d u i u selion -fattor u

0.6. Frd the averoge lumunation prndueod on theftcos.

S0ln
2
Arna 0 the vom 1Hx6 l02M

.S.C-P TDtadfun lumens

4IT
TUta u n &uumeu
2s0 x4TT = 3140 luma
eath Kamp J

TO tcdtun kumens b
3140 xX20=
20=62,
62,80o
800 Aumens
Aumu
ao Kamps

umen's uHü zed =

TOtal number umenxo.b

dupreuialo fatpY
62800 a0.b
2
= 52 333.33 xo.b
3139.913 umen
AYRYage iluuminalioo2 umer utiAimod xo 31400umuy
on the loor
Area thu floor

52333.33 xo.b
D2

513.07 Aun xD.b

307.S42 Jux
8 A unifom CP D 250 n au diredtoru
Lamp haring aa
tota
which directs 60 the
prprided with a rlhtor
area ldm diameter
on to a itular
uht uniformly illuumirelion
Calculalu Thu
6m above the amea.
The lamp u hu
with and

Ci at the Centre Ci) at the edg the surtau

without lector

Soln
iuminaion at the 1 . C.P
d-7.fm
Certre without efetor J
25
5m 5m
2
= 6.94 Lur

C) Tluumination at the edge tThe .,CPCo

suface without etector

6
COAO = 0.6 8

250 3
xCo.b8)
2

= 3.14S lun

Sane the octor direts the gh* un-foomly on the anea

(lumination with retleltov

C.P flun
FLun ) umenStredian
Strocuan
4T

Total fum in
umun
C-Px41 2sDXA=looT
 umuns 0achtng th sufac 0.6xTOta fun
TOtal
- 0.6 x OooTT

booTT

TDtal surface Are Tr: 7J6)

2

STT

AVRTage illumuncrtion Ttaud Fux 6007

Av2a

Ci Tumunattorn othout olectoY

Solid anglk ubhended by w Q7 1-COsB)
orea t thu lamp J
w-1TC1-D.H8)
w .4647T Steradians
Total fun eachurng the
urfat J25DR o.4647
116D lumns

AVRYaGe Tllumination 6I6T

STT

464 lux
9. Two Ramps 0 umunous ntenkTty 200 Canclela and svO

Candla mounecd at lom ancd Sm upetti vey . The homZmta!

distan betuueen thu lamp is 4pm. Calulale the illumnaluon
in thu middle th posts
Soln B

A
9
d 15m

7777L 2om C
77 77

ADm

d +a0 eosB o to
.341
, = 22.361m COs8 0.44F

d I2+202 COAO-S

CosDo,6
Tlumunation at middl o the Posts
Du to Loump -A Due to Åamp -
B

E Co6, F
d2
Cose2
200 ,x O.44
AO.6
(22.361) (2s2
£,0.1799 ux 0.48 Ru
TO tod iumunalion at midd df. E - ¬,+¬
t PDAts
E -
O.489 +D.4g

E o.6s89 u
1O. Covidr ughtd by 4 Ramp lom ajnt and
Kuspendeo at a hoight S abore the Cortre une tte

floor 4 2ach lamp 9ires 200 P en a l direuioru belou

t hor 20nfas.Fed th tuminat ion a o Pont On t h

fLoor uc betuwoen thu Seond ard third amp

Sdln'

B C D

5m

(OM

Frpm Th 1qunz

BP: CP 5+52 ,07 m

Pp: Dp541s =IS. 81m

Tlumination at P due to lomp B.
Cose
CBp) 7-07

200 xOF0
Fep (7.072

Fep 2.828 lun

2umuattOn at p du fo Xeurnp -A

Fap toA®, COse, 0.316

CP
 200 0.31b
np
(Is.81)2

Fpp 0. 253 lun

TUtad Aumination a p Fap Fept FApt DP

a828+ 8 2 9 4 0.253 + . 5 3

- 6.162 un

1) Fund the total Saving in elumca ad ard POTCRnta

encrease n ilumnazion i instad o uung tuelve sd w

tuelo goN FLOuCa

turgstan filament lamp. e w

tubas. It a y be amumad That

( There is a Chore los 7 2sY. 0 rakcel Kamp Nattag

Ci) Avera luminou Huency Twughour ite for 2ach

lamp tSAm)n and tor eath tube 40 Aml anel

Cii) CoLiuent b uuaatton emaun Same in both C a

SDln
N o 1sDN Tungslkm fi lamer kamp =12
tube 12
No sD hI FluonOlCent

TOtal Road o Filament lamp: 12xSD= ISoow

TDted omd o FluDru tent tube 12(80+ 0.2S xso)

200n
Net Satng tn koad = 1800-1200=

The ovom Area

and hthe (0{4iciont turilialuov
lumunaluon wih lamps, E, = TOtal Fluur in lunun
 E 2X 1SDX 1SN

E27ocon/ Am|ma)
Tluminatuon with tubeu,E, 12x 80x 4oN
A

38400 (/,3 Am n-)

38400 -2700o
Intveale in iluniaton
X1DD

12) ARampP i ving 4 Oo Cande Pouwn in a l duvetia

belao th hori2ontas upended 3m aboe h e Cetre
D Th &uaTe table 1 . S m Aide, Calcula Th maumun

and minumum lumnalon 0n the talble.

Soln
h 3m, CP-4oo

TRumunattton at the CP

Contne thu tab F

Maumum illumerion 400
3

444 ux
TLlumunatton a any CoYTOL(OD HDO COse
menumum illumirationJ AF)2
2 2 2
Af: AB+ BF
 2
BF D.Hs+ 0.75=1.12sm

AF 9+1.12S
AF 10.lo Sm

4-00
Aumunauon at any Conar X
L0.125 I0.125

200
2
io.125)

inimum lumnatuoo F l14a luz |

13) Dom 12mx 8nm x4m t o have olieet ightinging

orm above t h e f l o .
umuation 8okun on th worta Plan
0.g. hiAthe
S and manteant fatoY
Coejtiuent outiuAatton
anc t h e i r ttng.
number t uooeECLDr Tube lamps w e d
tacon ay 40 umenshlat layot
Lamp truorty may be

SDln
Area 12x8 = 76m

Flun Tlumunatton ana

80 x96

Fu = T6&o umenA

Plux
ight vnuisnd-
CUX DDP o.SXO.8

E 19200 Rumens
 umens 9200
TDtal Nattage
40

= 490 hlati.

ARune ADN FRumescont tubes

ASD
NO of kamp3

= 12 Namps

gm
O
3m
O
kBm OE 3m 0
tm

12m

DAMumnga kpau huzht Tatto o 1.

A A tHau 3om ong and am wids t o be itluminaltd and

uminatton repulrad 50 uumens Per mete. talulati The

huumbar , tha natage o 20ch rut and th Loalion ad

mounting huight The units, takung a dpretiabon fat

3m and uiusation cortH Ue 0.S. buven that

the Doutput The duftoront tyPe b Åampi ae belous

latts 200 300 500 100O
umrs
36sD 995D 21 SDo
Soin
be illumunated S12 360m
rca to
TOtal kumns ed 36-cX 5T= ooo lument

Gts kumeny yel. fv»the. DF

amps utiliutisalwn (octfiuex

X13
b.S
46, Soo lumens
T acol Aamps a ucd
Grrr kumens
No o lamps A6,8to
12, 8
Lunmery { lach kamp

N &cups 13 Itwi not 9ie efual diapoxition

Romp
ulel
lcoW Pamp a
NO o Ramps
46Soo 8.9 28
161S
et A amps be wed alom width side and 7 along
th lurgth Bds

<um
O

12m

kOm-0

30m

Spau huiyht atio alongs lugth: 333

Spo htigbr 9atte aly rtd13
IS) A hau bmx 44m u ilmenaled by ndiset ahttng Pn neae
o n a hoom2ontal plane
luminatton &o kumen/m u mpvided
etficiontuy o1m/untt
ae
lumunoy
bo filamene tamp, having
0.7 Determurne
tobe ued CU= 0.6 and D
for illumumlion
Ci GtrDas lumens 7puiod () Pouo guived
Fnd The sa vinq tn PUuer { nstead
i No of lamps (lv
boN Hilament ampA, 3bal FT. ghn ae ultd having tfiien
o1 4s Am| W A I tird No ot tube lights qu yed
Soln
Area to be illumunalicl = 36xy 1584 m
TUtal lluminccdion on the Nortung þlanu : 80x (S89
= 12L720 Xumen

26720
( GirOM umen v e u d
0.bXo.
0,6xo.7
31014.29 lumen

Ci GrTDAs Lmn310FH{4
Pouwer 7eqwred for lumanalion = GD umen 31049 39
humun/at
2728.57 Watt
27.43
Ci No t amps 2429.S7
=457.19

N457 amps
(iv) 3bW Fuorestunt tube bus Lmlw.
310H/4.29
Pouer epuived 6904. F6 Wa H
4S

PoweY Saxim= 2443- 6.90

D.526 kkl.

NO o Wght rejurad 6904. 191.79 N 192 lanp

36
 Numeical Povblema Enery Consumption
C a l u l a l t the elecrrial 2negy Consumed by a l200

ot be the OsE O uung

ttas tor in 30 munute. hlhat

the
The Same dor One month. 44 the One unit 2lectrTury CO4r

RSA
Soin
P 1200W
Wattage of Tmste

PXE
EheTgy Consumed by Taste, E
E 20x O.5

E 600Nh

Hint Iunit =IkWh

SO
the Enery tonbumd by toasli E : O.6tWh

The energy wed by The t a s u t o 30

30 day
onergy da
E 0.6 x30
E18KWh

Thi energy COAts = TOtal Eneru ElecTT u y

CoAr
8X4
Rs 12
2) Ahouu has th tolluwing load
a) 8lamps - 60n Cach tooting foo6hous a olay

b) Fans - 8OhN 2ath UwOTcen for 8 hos a day

c) 3 electic healoas -1CCOA path COOnceng fod 2hou aday
d)etecrrie motor 1.Shp twoceng for 4 haus a day

Callwat the electrt Cty b i u 4 vata/ tunu Rs (-5/- an

the monh / Seplmbe.
R 15/ a meti n t o r
S NO
EcicoNO Rattg o T m ENry Congunptlon
oad oad n
Chs) E PT (Wh)
Lamps 60 6 2880

fars 3 20D

heatuu 3 2 6 000

A MDtor 44 7
A
TOtl Enegy 16 SS6 (Nh)
CDn&umed

unit lkWh

l6, SSb kWh

TUtad EnRrGy Consumed,E
The monTh t pkmbei
The ElcTiury bitl fo

=6.556 x 1.5x 30

Ra4s.02
The meter Rent Rs IS
The total elumuTy bili = 74S.02+IS

Rs5.02 bo 02

3 ucthop lonne ched orth

a) Dfar b 60 hN lath ootung fos o houo a dauy
E hRaliu IKW Pach wotung for 66 hous a day

eath 2
Cung fo hou a
day
d) 1S elgai bulb t toW COOCLnq fov4 hou a day
trour h ocHTiLi y bill-for the momlh 0 30 daiye at
u untt
Soln

Eleetica Rating tme in Eny Conkumptropn

S.ND Load Load hrs) EPT (Nh)

Fan 60

2 heater 6000

Oven &00b
12

bulb IS 6oW 3600

t o t Erergy
33 600
Conswnud

TOtad ENRTGY Consumed= 33.6 kn

The FttrTuty 6i for month

33.6x 30 x D.ST

Rs 554,4