DOI: 10.18462/iir.gl2022.

0012

Ammonia heat pumps are key to global decarbonisation

Kenneth HOFFMANN(a), Ron HOFFMANN(b)
(a,b)
GEA Heating and Refrigeration Technologies
(a)
De Beverspijken 7c, 5221 EE, ‘s-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands, [email protected]
(b)
Holzhauser Strasse 165, 13509 Berlin, Germany, [email protected]

ABSTRACT
To avoid overloading the electricity grid in the future it is important when decarbonising our heating system
by electrifying 50% of the global energy demand (for heating) with an electricity grid which currently are
providing 20% of the global energy demand to apply the highest efficiency possible. With the latest
development of high temperature ammonia heat pumps the industry has proven that there is significant
operation benefit of using natural refrigerant ammonia compared to alternative technology.

Keywords: Heat pumps, Decarbonisation, Compressors, Energy Efficiency, Optimised Design

1. INTRODUCTION
United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has announced that the World is in
the middle of a climate emergency. The climate change is real and human activities are the main cause. If the
World is not able to keep the temperature rise below 1.5°C of pre-industrial level, we will see increasing sea
water, dying coral reefs and danger to insects and vital pollinators habitat. In 2021 the main source to the
temperature increase is the burning of fossil fuels which accounts for two thirds of the greenhouse gasses.
Other sources are methane which accounts for 25% of the greenhouse gasses in 2021. Methane is 80 times
more powerful than CO2 (GWP20 = 80) when calculated on a 20 years life cycle. In 2016 the members of UN
Environment Programme (UNEP) agreed to the Kigali amendment of the Montreal Protocol on substances
that deplete the ozone layer. This amendment sets out actions for reduction in production and consumption
of hydrofluorocarbons (F-gasses) as they otherwise would lead to 0.4°C global warming and count for 25% of
the global greenhouse gas emission by 2050. The effect on global warming potential for F-gasses is based on
their 100 years global effect. This has traditionally be a good guidance figure as the traditional F-gasses had
a very long life cycle in the atmosphere, but many of the new F-gas refrigerant that has been introduced to
the market since the Kigali amendment have a very short life time in the atmosphere, so it is more suitable
to base their global warming effect based on a 20 years life cycle like it is done for methane emissions. The
new F-gasses have also shown to have others less favourable environmental impact. At one factory in the US
they yearly release R23 (which is a by product of the manufacturing process) is equal to the release of
4,000,000 tons of CO2. We don’t know the emissions from all the other manufacturing facilities as they mainly
are situated in less developed countries, so no one knows what the actual carbon footprint is for
manufacturing of F-gasses. There has also been raised question marks regarding the breakdown components
of the F-gasses which increasingly are detectable in our fresh water systems. The break down components
are very similar to the fluoride salts (PFA) which has been banned in many countries due to their toxicity to
the environment.

In a race to reduce greenhouse gasses there is a major push for reduction in burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel is
mainly used for heating, electricity generation and transport. Globally heating amounts to 50% of the fossil
fuel being used, by optimising and decarbonise the heating systems large gains can be achieved to reduce
the global emissions. One of the focus areas to decarbonisation is to decarbonise the electricity generation
and electrify the heat production. To optimise the heat production from renewable electricity sources
implementation of heat pump seems to be the optimal solution. With coefficient of performance (COP)
between 2 – 10 (depending on the temperature lift) it is possible to gain 2 – 10 times the heat energy
compared to the electric energy used.

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
 Figure 1: Global

Globally 19.3% of final energy usage is electricity (2018), when electrifing the heat generation by adding
(what account for 50% of fossil fuel consumption) heat energy to the electricity grid at the same time as
transport energy consumption is moving in the same way, there is going to be an enormous strain on the
electricity grid in the coming years, which potentially will lead to brownout or blackout and interrupt the
electricity supply. The answer to decarbonisation is not just to electrify everything it is very important to do
it most efficiently. When we look at industrial heat pumps the difference between market average and best
in-class can be more than 30%. It is important that the introduction of heat pumps into the industry and
district heating is done most efficiently not only to give the customer the best return of investment, but also
to limit the impact on the electricity infrastructure in the coming years. High temperature (in the area 60°C
to 95°C) ammonia heat pumps have proven to be significantly more efficient than F-gas heat pumps and must
play a major part in the coming years decarbonisation.

2. COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGIES FOR INDUSTRIAL HEAT PUMPS

Traditionally there are 3 main compressor technologies used for industrial refrigeration: Screw compressors
(single rotor or dual rotor design), reciprocating compressors and centrifugal compressors.

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
 Figure 2: The picture shows 3 types of compressors typically used for heat pumps. To the left the multi stage
centrifugal compressor (Siemens Energy). In the middle a screw compressor (GEA) and to the left a reciprocating
compressor (GEA).

Heat pumps have a distinctive different way of operation compared to chillers. Chillers operate at part load
when the ambient temperature is low, this enable the compressor to operate at lower differential pressure
at part load. For heat pump application the heating and cooling side are at constant temperature
independent of the capacity requirement for most application. The positive displacement compressors
(screw compressors + Reciprocating compressors) has a clear benefit when operating heat pump applications
with high differential pressure independent of the capacity demand. The multi stage centrifugal compressors
are less capable of maintaining the pressure differential when the fan speed reduces at part load. This leads
to a drop off in efficiency and limits the minimum part load conditions. For positive displacement
compressors the compressed gas is discharged at the same pressure independent of the rotation speed of
the shaft. Centrifugal compressors are more suited for moving large amount of refrigeration gas which makes
them suitable for F-gasses like R1234ze (R1234ze = 107 Kj/kg @ 82°C) as it requires 8 times larger refrigerant
mass flow rate than ammonia (R717 = 865 Kj/kg @ 82°C) at the same heat pump conditions.

Part load heat pump comparison

180

160

140
Indexed performance

120

100

80

60
Reciprocating ammonia compressor heat pump
40
Screw compressor ammonia heat pump
20
Centrifugal compressor R1234ze heat pump
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage part load

Figure 2: Part load comparison of 3 different heat pump technologies. The comparison is based on one project with
index 100 for the efficiency of the centrifugal compressor at design conditions.

In the figure above is a comparison between the 3 different compression technologies where the heat pumps
are evaporating at 27°C and delivering heating water from 45°C to 75°C. The comparison is based on one

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
example and there might be variation in the actual performance between the 3 different technologies at
other operating points. There are only small difference (approximately 5%) between an ammonia screw
compressor heat pump and a centrifugal heat pump at design conditions, but when looking at part load
conditions the screw compressor heat pump begins to be increasingly the more efficient solution and as the
centrifugal compressors are not able to operate below 50% duty the R1234ze would be operating with more
stop/starts which will increase wear of motor and bearings. For most applications it is possible to match one
or a multitude of screw compressors for the same capacity as centrifugal compressor solutions. For
reciprocating compressors heat pump, the efficiency is approximately 20% better than centrifugal
compressor at design conditions and more than 40% better at 50% part load. The only limitation is that high
pressure reciprocating compressors for ammonia is limited to approximately 1000 m 3/h in comparison with
screw compressors which are available up to 7000 m3/h, so there is needed up to 7 times more reciprocating
compressors for each screw compressor on a large heat pump project. For smaller projects with variable
loads the reciprocating ammonia compressor is significant better performing than any other high
temperature heat pump technology.

Heat recovery from ammonia refrigeration plant have been used for more than 100 years, in particular heat
recovery from the high temperature superheated discharge gas from the compressors which is unique to
ammonia refrigeration. It is only in the last 15 years that dedicated high temperature ammonia heat pumps
have been implemented into the industry and for district heating. To use the full potential of ammonia for
heat pumps the right equipment is needed. At the same time this equipment must be suitable for the
demanding conditions. Most installation are for processes requiring less than 80°C hot water, this has both
been due to the available components, but mainly due to the lack of acceptable payback time of heat pumps
when designed for higher temperatures. In the industry it requires a payback time of less than 3 years for
most application, district heating projects can normally accept a longer payback time of up to 10 years. In
recent years the demand for higher temperature heat pumps in the industry have increased as there is a
consumer demand for big companies to decarbonise their production. Investment in heat pumps is now often
driven more by the need for decarbonisation rather than short payback time. In the rush to decarbonise it
might be forgotten that it still is very important to optimise the efficiency and install the most efficient system
to avoid an electricity shortage in the future when most heating demands have moved from fossil fuel heating
to electrical heating while still using the existing electricity grid. Without focus on highest efficiency solution
we will run into an electricity shortage with skyrocketing prices and potential brownout or blackouts. To
reach the higher temperatures required from the industrial processes several new developments have been
going on in recent years. The compressor – which has to provide the high pressures – is the key component.

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
Figure 3: LogP-H diagram of a heat pump with reciprocating compressor recovering heat from the condenser circuit
of a refrigeration plant.

Currently it can be seen that the compressor ranges are being extended up to 95°C for the different heating
capacity requirements by several ammonia compressor manufacturers and existing first-generation products
are replaced by new solutions.

One example is the just released GEA Grasso V XHP which is a reciprocating compressor series with a swept
volume from 350m3/h – 950 m3/h that enables the provision of temperatures of up to +95°C with highest
efficiency for heat pump sizes of up to 3 MW per unit. For applications with a higher heat demand screw
compressor are being developed and the existing portfolio extended with a new series with a capacity up to
2748 m3/h optimized for the special requirements of high temperature heat pumps. The industry standard
for ammonia heat pump (both reciprocating compressors and screw compressors) are now a hot water
temperature limit of 95°C. Currently there is not a demand for higher temperatures with ammonia heat
pumps. At higher temperatures and pressures the availability of standard components becomes more
challenging and as the condensing pressure getting closer to the trans critical temperature the efficiency
decreases and other technologies above 100°C becomes more efficient option (steam compression being the
most promising technology).

2.1. High pressure screw compressors

In the following section we will discuss the development of the high-pressure screw compressors from GEA
made with focus on high efficiency and reliability for ammonia heat pumps, delivering up to 95°C hot water,
despite the demanding conditions. These two properties have a special focus because every improve has a
direct impact on profitableness and sustainability, which makes it of economic interest as well as for
ecological reasons. Most ammonia screw compressor heat pumps have been installed in district heating
applications where there normally are needed a larger temperature lift, as it often is relative cold sources
like sea water, sewage water or air. The combination with high capacity and a high temperature demand
makes screw compressors the main choice for these applications. For district heating application the heat
pumps often operate with variable hot water supply temperature between summer and winter conditions,
also on the cooling side there can be large variation in evaporation temperature between summer and
winter. These variable conditions adds to the complexity of the heat pumps solution and the operation
envelope of the compressors.

To provide a sustainable solution the components must be efficient and reliable. Since the conditions at such
heat pump applications are totally different than at refrigeration applications also the compressors must be
adapted, even if the basic technology stays the same. One size of the new screw compressor series has a
swept volume of 2,748 m³/h at a running speed of 2940 rpm. At an evaporating temperature of 30°C and a
condensation temperature of 95°C this leads to a refrigerant mass flow of about 22,000 kg/h while
compressing it from 11.7 bar to 51.2 bar. The same compressor would compress at refrigeration conditions
of -20 / 35 °C only about 4,100 kg/h from 1.9 bar to 13.5 bar. In general, it can be said that the mass flow, the
temperatures, the pressures and pressure differences are much higher at heat pump applications. These
conditions result in higher thermal and mechanical loads for every part of the compressor. Therefore,
different measurements have been be taken to achieve at least the same reliability and efficiency as at
refrigeration applications.

The heart of every screw compressor are the rotors. These parts are responsible for the compression process
and have therefore a tremendous influence on the properties of the compressor. Continuous researches and
development of the rotor design over the last 50 years have resulted in very efficient and reliable screw
compressors for refrigeration application. For the new screw compressor series, a completely new rotor

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
profile was developed since the optimal design depends on the conditions the compressor is operating at.
While optimising the efficiency of the compressor at ammonia heat pump applications, the rotor profile also
influences the distribution of forces and effects therefor the reliability. For the radial forces usually sleeve
bearings are used which offer a huge lifetime – in theory even an unlimited. The GEA screw compressor uses
special treated sleeve bearings for the heavy conditions in combination with a possibly high number of start-
stop procedures. The axial bearings are adapted to the higher loads as well and a balance piston reduces the
axial force to increase the lifetime of the bearings, this is done by hydraulic pressure which works against the
direction of the axial force caused by the gas pressure acting on the rotors. Standard balance pistons are a
compromise between maximizing the force to enhance the bearing life and preventing that the balance
piston force can become significantly higher than the gas force which inverts the resulting force and can lead
to serious compressor damages. This new screw compressor incudes an innovative solution to adapt the
balance piston force to the requirements of the actual conditions even during operation. This increases the
reliability by extending the bearing lifetime and by preventing damages which can occur if the balance piston
force is unsuitable high.

An important feature for screw compressors in ammonia heat pump applications is the variable Vi, which is
offered by the new series from GEA at all conditions. It has a big impact on the efficiency as well as for the
reliability. Vi is the internal volume ratio and defines the pressure ratio inside the compressor. At a given
suction pressure the Vi defines the internal pressure at the end of the compression process. In the optimal
case this pressure matches the system pressure at the discharge side of the compressor which is defined by
the condensation temperature. If these two pressures are not equal the efficiency drops since over or under
compression lead to additional work which increases the required power (see figure 4). A certain amount of
difference is acceptable for the reliability. But if the amount of over or under compression is too high also
the lifetime of the compressor drops. Big differences between the internal and the external pressure at the
discharge side of the compressor can even cause serious damages. Two factors influence the optimal internal
volume ratio: temperatures and capacity requirement. With temperatures are meant the evaporating and
condensation temperature which are influenced by the source and sink of the heat pump. Both factors –
temperatures and capacity requirements – vary during the year or even during the day, so a variable internal
volume ratio is crucial to adapt to the changing conditions to optimize efficiency and reliability.

Figure 4: Pressure – Volume diagram

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
2.2. High pressure piston compressors

Piston compressors have shown to maintain their efficiency at high pressure application. Where centrifugal
and screw compressor efficiency decreases at increasing pressures, there is not the same reduction in
efficiency for the piston compressors. However, piston compressors have a reputation of requiring more
maintenance than screw compressors, so it has been the main focus of the high pressure piston compressor
development to ensure a maintenance requirement on the same level as other compression technologies.

For ammonia heat pump application, the suction gas is a lot more dense than for refrigeration application.
The higher the suction temperature the more dense the gas becomes. Saturated ammonia gas at 35°C has a
density of 10.5 kg/m3 whereas saturated ammonia gas at -45°C only has a density of 0.5 kg/m3. If a heat pump
compressor is at standstill in a cold plant plantroom the ammonia inside the heat pump will condensate if
the standstill pressure is kept at 35°C. To avoid condensation inside the compressor it is important with some
superheat of the suction gas. In GEA’s reciprocating compressors the suction gas is preheated in the
compressor before entering the cylinders to protect it from droplets in the suction gas.

A layer of ammonia can condensate on top of the oil sump at the bottom of the housing of ammonia piston
compressor during standstill, most of this can evaporated with oil sump heater before start-up but in addition
to oil heaters it is possible to circulate the oil with an external oil pumps before start-up to remove any
ammonia in the oil. This feature ensures sufficient lubrication of bearings at startup which extends the service
life of the compressor. With these modifications the cost of service of reciprocating compressors becomes
very similar to other compression technologies at high pressure.

3. EFFICIENT HEAT EXCHANGER CONFIGURATION

To minimise the energy consumption of the heat pumps it is important to apply sound heat exchanger
configuration. One of the unique features of ammonia is the high amount of energy in the superheated
discharge gas from the compressors. For reciprocating compressors where there is no (or very little) oil
cooling reducing the discharge gas temperature a discharge temperature which is 60 – 80K above the
condensing temperature is not uncommon. For screw compressor heat pumps high discharge temperatures
are undesirable as it leads to material expansion which will require larger tolerances around the rotors which
effect the efficiency of the compressor. To cool the discharge gas a larger amount of sealing oil is circulated
through the compressor. For these heat pumps there is less available heat in the discharge gas, but more
available high temperature heat from the oil cooler.

Figure 5: Typical heat exchanger configuration for reciprocating (left) and screw compressor (right) heat pumps

For reciprocating compressor heat pumps, you would have 1 – 3 heat exchangers in series Subcooler.
Condenser and desuperheater. Some manufactures are manufacturing 3 in 1 heat exchangers, so you have
all 3 heat exchanger sections with one frame / shell. For screw compressor heat pumps you would have a
similar setup, but instead of de-superheater you would apply an oil cooler for heat recovery. There is not

15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway
always applied all 3 heat exchangers as the benefit of de-superheater and subcooler depends on the dT of
the heating water through the heat pump. For heat pumps with only 5K dT on the hot water side, you would
only apply a condenser as the benefit of desuperheater and sub cooler are negligible.

For the heat pump application shown in Figure 3, where water is heated from 45°C to 90°C, we see that by
applying sub cooler we can increase the heat output with 12.7% without increasing the absorbed power. In
the de-superheater we can recover 20.4% of the energy, based on a temperature lift of 45K of the heating
water this equal a 9.2K temperature lift in the de-superheater. Without the de-superheater the heat pump
would have to operate at 9K high condensing temperature leading to a 20% reduction in efficiency.

4. CONCLUSION
Continued development within ammonia compression technology ensures that it continues to be the most
efficient solution for industrial heat pumps. This will have a serious impact on the amount of electricity
needed globally when electrifying 50% of todays energy demand based on burning fossil fuel for heating
purposes. Using the most efficient heat pump technology for decarbonisation will reduce the electricity
needed with 20% at full load and 30 – 40% at part load compared to F-gas alternatives. With an electricity
grid build for providing 20% of the global energy it is important to use the electric energy most efficiently to
avoid large investment is new electricity grid and avoid brownouts or blackouts. The new generation of
ammonia heat pumps fulfil the requirements for optimised carbon reduction and minimised electricity usage.

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Arpagaus (2019) Arpagaus, C.: Hochtemperatur-Wärmepumpen, Marktübersicht, Stand der Technik und
Anwendungspotenziale. ISBN 978-3-8007-4550-0, E-Book: ISBN 978-3-8007-4551-7, VDE Verlag
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Paris Agreement, United Nations, Framework Convention of Climate Change, 26.1.2016

RT select, compressor selection software by GEA

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15th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen conference on Natural Refrigerants | June 13-15 | Trondheim, Norway