QUA NTIT ATIV E MET HOD S

I. Inference: Testing for significance allows us to make inferences about the

population based on a sample of data. By conducting hypothesis tests, we can
draw conclusions about parameters, .relationships, or differences in populations
beyond the sample.
2. Decision-ma]cjng: Significance testing helps in making decisions in various
fields. For example, in scientific research, hypothesis tests help determine
whether a new treatment is effective or whether a proposed theory is supported
by evidence.
3. Identifying Relationships: Testing for signifiawce allows us to ide1ltify and
tibderstand relationships between variables. By analyzing the significance of

3
R•-fl QPH Help Book fot I.G:N.OU Exam
HAND WRiTTENASSiGNMENT HARD COPY (BY Courier) ti. rvr r, ......, ... v ..,LAeL~.' \~
1
. e if there is a meaningful
assoc1.at1ons
. d' ffi nces
or 1 ere . , . we can detem1 1n
. ed differences are due to chance.
relationship betwee~ vartab_les _or if the obs_erv h I validate assumption
s made
4. Validating Assumptions: S11?11ticanc~ t~SU~g e:;model assumption
s, such as
in statistical models. By testing t~e Signi fi~n~ e.
the normality of data or the equahty of vanances, we ca0 ensure that the chosen
statistical methods are appropriate for the data at hand. • fut
5. Providing Evidence: Significance tests provide evfidethnce trto sgturo~
hypotheses. They offer a quantitative measure o e s ~n ~~: n~
.
against the null hypothesis, allowing researchers to communicate their nd .
fi mgs
and support their claims with statistical rigor. . .
6. Scientific Integrity: Conducting significance tests 1s an essen
tial part 0 \ ~
scientific process. It ensures that research findings are reliable, rep~00
uci e,
and accountable. By subjecting hypotheses to rigorous teming, we can
separate
genuine effects or relationships from random fluctuations or biases.

Testing_ distributi~ or v~~ ~giii~~ G&cia l in statistical an_alys~ to

make informed infereno\S~"t.uppoit dectsioii=rflakin'4?~~ta
nd relationships,
validate assumptions, ~~{ 'vid en~ and main tain ~~~ ~ integr
help us determine ifqp t5se Bled ~--iC •isii 6btj. 1ign • 1cij}it ity. These tests
and if the observed
differences or relationsyips can...be..gfl}.e.f!J,~-0..tbe.Jar.ger pulati
on or if they are
simply due to random ehance.
•

help of an exa.-iple. :. rt . , E
' ' • ,· 0 :
-~ .. . .• , . V ;
~:- Confidence ~, 1:als ~· confidenc~limits ~
estunate the range wt~ ~!i an ·,=
· .·
cal co~cepts used to
.Ml population p . ter hes, based on a
sampl~ of ~ta. l)ley pr~~de-{~ m : .
the estimation. . •.. " \~\ ~.s,c_;:;;,,i.
A confidence int erv al' ll!: ;{~ ~c hf~ i
Lr;t-~
e,~t y or V ·wility associated with
Ill.

population parameter
is expected to fall with ~a~~rtaiP.,• !~y~'1f coqfi~eftpe: _!t)~ ists
values, an upper limit and a· ~lQW,¢r '-~4:wbicli·j~tiliE the range two boundary
1
of
. The confidence
interval is typically expressed as a petcetitage,iepiesenting the level
of confidence in
the estimation.

For example, let's say a researcher wants to estimate the average heigh
t of adult males
in a city. They collect a random sample of 100 male individuals
and measure their
heights. The sample mean height is calculated as 175 cm, with a -stand
ard deviation of
5 cm. To estimate the average height in the population, the resea
rcher
95% confidence interval. This means that there is a 95% level of ~onfi constructs a
dence that the
true population mean height falls within the interval.

Using the sample data, the researcher ·can calculate the -confidence
interval using the
formula:
Confidence Interval= Sample Mean± (Critical Value x Standard Error
)

4
iJJead Glll 8.lp Book for -pl, EJ[ a0t
 The,··
. .cnt1cal value is det . .
distribution of th ermined based on the desired confidence level and the
confidence lev 1 .e sampl~. For a normal distribution, the critical value tor a 95%
f e ts approximately l.96.
The standard err • 1 1
the sa . or is _ca cu ated as the standard deviation divided by the square root of
mp1e s1ze. In this example, the standard error is 5 cm I ✓100 = 0.5 cm.

Plugging in the values, the confidence interval can be calculated as:

Confidence Interval = 175 cm± (1.96 x 0.5 cm)= (173.02 cm, 176.98 cm)

This means that with 95% confidence, we can say that the true average height of adult
males in the city is within the range of 173.02 cm to 176.98 cm.

!he confidence limits refer to the upner ,!14Q lower boundaries of the confidence
interval. In o_~ example, th_e ~M~(lfute ti~Aq}scm (lower limit) and 176:98
cm (upper_ hmit). Toes.e Jilndi.,.defilfe Ore riiii'ge-. i hich the true population
parameter 1s estimated uf~,g·ith the specified level o •lgice.
. ~ BE SUCCESSFULL 'V
It's llllpOrtant to note'dla* ihe concepte~con.fiei!lce intenrals ifiilnits is based on the
principles of probabilitf and samplidg~lfi~15inty. They provl~e a range of plausi~le
values for the popul fi~n parameter, accounting for the uncekainty associated with
sampling. The wide the confidence interval, the gre~er die ·uncertainty in the
estima~on. Higher c 1de~ce. levels will result in ~ider gi~alj, reflecting the desire
for a higher degree o certain~J . . . _ ~-- ~ ~) ij )
. :::v·
Confidence intervals ~d limi&e widel ~ d in statistic'1 ysis to communicate
the precision and reliab'Iity ~es· _ • • towing resear, ~ to make informed
conclusions and decisio asetl Oft~ • • ~- ...s - •
, ~.
\ ~~- . - . ~' -
(ill) Distinguish be~~~,~e- • ~ ; . . d twO'! • ':d~~t.
~I' - ,,_J&b-a:,
Ans:- ••
. /:~ .. l 1nak\\t VT"
...( ltll e~:!! 1'1- ~ ., -
IJl~Y--~ the ~J'.}'epip;is represent~-br;.~pj)ttion ofthe ~ mid,r 1b.e
eiiiti3bj'lify oo~~.of~-Jm3 dis.tribttti<tlf<1(~~statisti<;.

A:i tQ\t t,f any .statkficll hypothesis wbera tbe itlt~ijve ,bypoth,;si$ ·.iJ
1
Qnc-.
~4iJe<f(iigbt1aUed, ~n le~~lled) ls cal_led=tf. ts,~~~~~l'. Por e~le, a test
- ~ ilic • -,~t \. ~P:i!la~p ~; p = Po. lP"'~t, tho- altoijJative
t,i~-~ H,: 41 :> jlj,{tlpt ~tktl)t~;B,t 11 ~ ·119-~t~•Uilet); is a '~te,.
tai~lest'. In.1hc ~Jpt~lailed test (f/J; ~~~R the crit~l rqion liea entirely ill
u,~~$iliif4itoftho tjm~ling ai.stri¥,io~~:i, wftll~f(~'the.le~~~ (If;: 11·<
J!d), 1
crit,iQaliflJp;ni• js •tirely 'II!- t~ 1~11. bµl.~Q,f ~~ diatn01¢iq~ !.et us
_~

~ t • f~~,-~~l~}?Ot-~i.iw~~ , l f ~ hypo~~~
taitlid-1f~
~-- .
...
Hl•ff:= ~ 11,ihst thtiak~. .1hwot'-i$ R,'! µ ; 1,1o~(#.·> ~

5
llead GPH Help Book for JGNOU Exam
 ,. •
. , I), \ r ,· ll , l t•"HI '
• ,,\t1,,,,h.1.. h,l,1' ..:ur,.'
~'IV ~l ~,,i~ lcn• 1~r ,r. '"' •1 '' I'\t \~"'. • tlw 1,ol~ l't t l'(• pr\~ · ·•
both
given lw tht! portion or 1 he sren lymg ,n
of the test ~atistk. . t 1...j qplicd
1
'led
•1 I ttst ,~ 0 ~t . l}';
It
, ~ h ,othc"is If the a crnat1vc
or t\\o-late( •
In a parbcutclr problem. whether one-tat ·.
depends entirely on the natur~ of the altcmnt1ve •1: test and if alternauve
hypothesis is two-tailed we apply the two-ta,
hypothesis is one•tailed, we apply one-tailed tcSt
~ of bu lhs. one manufactured
for example, suppose there arc two popular hrand - manufactured by some
by standard process (with mean life 111) •~ the ~~ d"ffer significantly, our
new technique (wilh mean life l12). To test ~ the . s 1 • ':F thus l!iving
null hypothesis is 1-fu: ~\t =µ:?and the aJ.temauve ~,n be H,. it, c!'::~ed by new
us a two.tailed test However, if..ft ~~fest if the bulb_s pr . then
process bave higher avef1!_~,ll:¼'1i tfio~~®m l by .sta~ard pr~\arty
we have Ho= µ1 ~ ~i ~~Hi:- r ~ _ i v ~ ~ ~ •lllt~:d p~~cess:
1

for testing if the p~t nC! .P!Ocess is mlerlOt't'\ of . .

we have set: ljo:•~=~lJY id~G,f;&~ ltMl kiv1 ~a r.•g~t-tat~ teSt
4

Accordingly ,~ d ~ i o ~ M&lllf.Rtw~iled t st or a- smgle-tail test

(riaht or k:ft)-'will r.nd Oil the prob~-~nder _st~y•.
2) Consider tl!e follt8g cue of ~mtnmed optimis•:ci
U(x, y)- x\, and P\2. P,=l. Tolal U1COJ1!C.i•200. o j

where consum~'• uJtity Cl!)~- d~eooe/iur,on the~~- oo.-....~ ~- and y. I is !he

total income of ~e co;}sumer; i;~ ~-,end s all .e.Jll~me on spending
over two goods x •tld y.
\. -
s \ \~-✓~
-~~ ~ .
' '
Maximise the otili~ ·t ~
,~~,-! . .{-~\nl!",.Fit'd out the optimal
consumption bundle (x*, Y~-l,~nd ~~ ·1B~~~~:~til~ of the consumer.
•
• ~·
.
Ans:- to·tmathe optimal consumption·buhclle (x•-, ~) and the maximum utility for
the consum~, we can solve the constrain~ optimi23tion problem using the Lagrange
-multiplier m~9(1. Let's tet up the problem:

'.Objective function: U(x, y) = x"2y htcome constraint: Px * x +Py * y = I

;Step
I
1: Fonnulate the Lagrangian function L(x; y, A) = U(x, y) - A(Px • x + Py * y - I)
1
Step·2: Take partial derivatives of L ~th respect to x, y, .and A., -and,set the.m equal to
F= oLJox=2xy-APx=O oL/oy=x"2-)J>y= 0 fJUcA=Px • x+ Py• y- I= o • •
~tep 3: Solve the system of equations simultaneously to find the values of x, y, and A.
I
I .

fFro~ ~-~eq~!i~~ _2xy_: ~.. ~' ~~_g~--~xy ..A:Px .@!~~~- t),

8
Read GPfl. Help Book for IGMOJ;J,~l)tam
Fron1 the second .
equation, x"2 - '"Py :-:-: o, we get: x"2 =/1.Py (Equation 2)
Dividing Eq ua fion 1 by Equation 2, we get: (2xy) / (x"2) = (APx) / (A.Py) 2y / x -- Px /
p
Y 2Y1 x=2/ l (Since Px=2 and Py= 1)

Simplifying the equation, we get: y /. x = 1

Substituting y = x in the income constraint, Px * x +Py* y = I, we get: 2x + x = 200

3x = 200 X =200 / 3 ~ 66.67

.Since y = x, we have y:::: 66.67 as well.

Step 4: Substitute the optimal values of x and y into the utility function U(x, y) to find
the maximum utility.

U(x•, y•) = 0(66.67, 66.67) \ ~ ,A:~1~~8 . ,,

Therefore, the opti°1 ~suni ption bundle is (x•,Y1ftC-{.66.67, 66.67), and
the
maximum utility the lf,ds ~c:g enst !fee ~t.lf !~~-
1/ ·-- F~1.Fi ---
ch question carries
12marks. lt,-
...! _; o ·.>
E t • .,

Q3) Explain tlie pronerties of set ·operations lritb •exaMp~.

~.'. . ~-a _..l § ...i •
to
,
Ans:- Set o~o ns e m4tqema_,!ica~@Jions that can . per(onned on sets
create new s~ ~r ~ete :~ • e r f l ~ ~ ~ sets. HeJ·~.!h e main properties
of set operations. "~·:·. 'ii,"•; ..~ . \ \ ,,,,. .---· ~ . ~1-'~-
. ·,,?\ I'-"
~r "d",,.;---- , ""'·· M
' ~ \~ <'..,.
.~;; A')'
•. • • , \.-
Union (denoted by U): ~.. ''.'·,-.~l . . -~. :)-\,
-~-· -· .. , , r
~\"1:-.,.vf'd.'i<~
,~.,
• , ,. . .• ~
• f· , ~, r i,:. (t~~

......: ~~~
". .
J. ,,. • ~-! ,:;· ! -~ ;~ .. ·t
$ • '':·

The union of two sets A and B,"ctenot~ci:@S"A Vi·Bi;,jg·"fue set that contains all elements
that belong to either A or B or both.

Example: A= {l, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}. AU B = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5}.,

Intersection (denoted by n ):

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted as A n B, is the set that contains all
elements that belong to both A and B.

Example: A= {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}. An B = {3}.

Difference (denoted by \ or -):

7
Read GPM~11ilelp Book for IGNOlJ. Exam
 d B denoted as A \ B or - ' ..
The difference between two sets A an • B •
contains all elements that belong to A but not to •

Example: A= {l, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}. A\ B == {l, 2}·

Complement (denoted by' or c):

.
The complement of a set A, denoted as A', 1s ontains all elements that do
the set that c
not belong to A in a universal set U.

Example: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A= {l, 2, 3}. A'= {4, 5}.

Subset (denoted by~ or c):

A set A is said to be a subset of another i\_\ !l_cnoted as A ~ B or A c B, if every

element of A is also an elem iey:,c #?~ .,!!!!:!__IV
~
Example: A = {1, 2} agd,;f ~,6 , 3}. A B. ~ ,,-"111
,n"-" f. BE SUC CES SFU l.L" ,~
Empty Set (denoted 61'?.o r !J.t _FAS TER _. _ ,

Example: 0 = {}.
.
The empty set is a set kith no elements. It is denoted as 0 or {}:,
\

• E~ '
These properties are dariie~tal in set the~~ and'- fo~., tile /basis .for many other
operations and conce ~ts-Th~a re. . p u l a t e arid ahalyze /sets in various
mathematical discipline sud\~ ~b, . ~ity, and logit. -r
It is important to ~ote ~t ~se p}b.'p_~~kal wl.lli ies arid may vary based
on the_ specific contel!,~-,J.. ~~ _of th~~ v.ol' ~ed. Additionally
operations can be combUJ.e<i ~~r applied-t:ter11ttve.ly-~·wrform mote , these
compl ex set
operations. ...

., _ ..
'V' •

;" ......
~~\:~~:
' t ••• '
.

/:, •
•

...
, -ii. \< "' •
• 'JI:,,,. ",...,..
...... '
Q4) What is a discontinuous function? Discuss the two types of
discontinuous
functions along with their diagrams.

Ans:~
A con ~~ lmctiott is it •ffllle ~ curv~· You co-L u~! ........:....
li~g~')'0\11' p&\ ,ltt~ U.-- ~ • • um w:1tW w111anll
. .
• Foreximpl~1btill~ pqjh .ofa oontibuo.ua:function:
1

ra
8-_ead Gf.'k Help .Boo k for-'IGNOU·, Exam
 " I
I

-
-I

.l
fll. s Gnplt ef Colld HNt hllcdott

without
In cue of a dlscoadauous function you C'llftnOC draw on a graph
titling your pencil. There a r c ~ ~ ~ ~ i t i e s :
\U fvA.-
"- ~7. ~
7
.-- • --......

-<.,. •
J Asymptoti<: Dis co~ ~ '" ~/./
in~s/ BE 5.tJCCESSFULL ·,\~ .
2 Point.Discont
. . - - · FAS TER
, \
~ Jump
3 • Di~l11 mUl es
•·-·(, l •
· dntal dtt ·.}. ~
J Asymptod
·- E •
CoRSldcr a tbpctioll • {.k)• .e.--- *+f • weAknoW• ~ its &>mom
•
. 1imitW to
·(%- l)(iY+9 ) •. • •" -

all ~• mun ~ •• l aw'-8. Often, __ • moit inte r• points ~ • .• !

function are~ prob tic•j,oints. • • we can see in e sra/>h ~,,
. ibe fiai1ction beliaves v •~l~ at j \
",
•be domain.
,..,,..,--j::,._
•
·r- ,,
,.,,~• I
t

~-::=--- ~\
,~.
c-. •
\~~\ /4~;;
~>--.,,, .•
~ :-.fr-·_,,. . :~
,. . .,,_,,.,,~~~' I
'i,..1.;:v
"-.,... ..
..
<::•
/F. ..)I -~~- c~•
...... •: • , •
" ."· •..
t ·- ... J)

,,., ' .~-. ....

·• I • "'-"
.
'•
... • 1.3 .t
\"""-

'
I

9
Read GPH He1p Boo k for IGNO U Exam
 \
)IX•lll
I l l ' ' ()

0 2~ -0 (,8 7

0~ -1.059

() ~< 2 J71

,o unJefincu

1.25 2.270

I ~ I ISR

10
1
Rud ·Cjlff Help iiook for IIINblJi,&ram
 ' '- I 1'
,, t ' . f ' •
•"
1
11(.: ftl',1 . 1 ,.,p ' • i

l
• :1t1d 1. J llh: d

.
f . inf lex ion poi nt. Is a sta tio nar y
) Ex pla in the concept o a statJonary point and
QSint
po or why not?
8I
ways 8 point of inflexion? Why
h
• • • a cur ve wh ere the der ivative (slope) of t e
Ans:-. A .stationary point 1s a point on m
fu
1s equal to zero. Jn other words, at a sta
tionary point, the curve changes fro
nct•o~ tically, for a
.
to dec rea sin g or fro m dec reasing to increasing. Mathema
in ~1 ng UJ'8 at x = c when f(c )
= 0.
function ftx), a stationary point OCC
ere the concavity
inf lec tio n poi nt, on the oth er hand, is a point on a curve wh cave upwards
An con
the curve transitions from being
changes. It is the point where e ... ¥dQ ~wards (ope nin g dow nwards like an
(opening upward s like a "U ") t_o. ~c av
of the function
an ~ ~ ~ oi i! t ih~ /{i t_~ de riv ati ve
"n"), or vic
sig n.
e ver
Mat
sa.
hem
At
ati ~l➔ 1"-" :;a- fun ction ·r(x)~iftt:l ·onpoint occurs at X = C
changes ~ "A.
when t"(c) = 0 or f'( c) ~ exist.
BE SU CC ::-sSFUlLare'\~~ ·~
a, , ection points. This is
tan t to nol e at not AJl ,-t. !,<>ya~PQiDL second
It is impor
cha nge i con cav ity at an irilJection point is eJated to the nt is
because the sloP .,e or rate ·or change t a stationary poi
fun ctio n, wh ere as the
derivative of the lit- 1
related to the ius t der,vative. _
To understand• wh y ai sta tio ~ie <> µ,.t t .isalw~•@'ifJ➔ti
no t / point, let's C?nsider
at x
se e hav e__ Lfu nct ion f(x l, xAJ, which;has stationary point
an example; Suppo g a stationary
x = 0, the f'll'S der iv_ ,n~ f1 (x iil 3~ is equal to :Zero indicatin t it is also
= 0. At find tha
,,$. ~ ai r~ at iv e f''(x) = xtyve
point. However, ifw e cuhit~:the. ~ ~ ~ it y do not;,chang e at x = 0, and
. 0. . ' • me ad~ \th
equal to zero at x .
t an inf lec tio ~ , ~ _ 1 / - - _ . : f_, ,
thus, it is no
p~~
tive
tio ruu i an ·-.! <W -Q !\,. ~~ ~-t he second deriva
In general, a sta tee : Fo r a stationary point to be
poi nt. Hb we ver , it ,is ril of· ag tJg
ch an g~ sign at that e must also~f>e nonzero at that poi
nt.
tio n poi nt, the sec ond der ifa tiv
an inflec
poi nt is a poi nt on a cw ve where the derivative is zero, an
While a stationary concavity changes. A stationary
point is no t
poi nt is a poi nt wh ere the
inflectio n
n poi nt, as the cha nge in con cavity is determined by the second
always an inflec tio
at a stationary point.
derivative, which can be nonzero
al to
al dis trib uti on. Dis cus s the two parameters which are Integr
Q6) Define norm
Jts definition.
on, als o kno wn as Ga uss ian distribution or bell curve, is a
Am :- Normal distrib uti is widely used
s pro bab ilit y dis trib utio n tha t is symmetric and bell-shaped. It its
continuou
pro bab ilit y the ory due to its roathP.matical properties and
in statistics and
nomena.
applicability to many natural phe

11 ,
IG NO U EJcam
Re ad GP N He lp Bo ok fo r
 ters· dency or
The non11al distribution is defined by two paramc • centra 1 ten
J1e t· h bell
• • represents . of the peak ot

e.
Mean {µ): The mean of a norma l distribution •
t

locat1on • of the d1stn u1

t o n ' s

ure
· b

average value of the distribution. It determmes

t h e
•

curve. The mean is denoted by the symbo•l P'band is ha measn 1-5 located at the center
10 t e mea
t· n
central location. In a symmetrical normal d1stn u ,
of the curve.
. I distribution measures the
Standard Deviation (o): The standard deviation of 8 nonna dct ines the spread
dispersion or variability of the data points around the mean. It er;: bol (1. A
or width of the beU curve. The standard deviation .is denoted by e 5symd
around
. tion
smaller standard deviation indicates that the data pomts are closely clu f:ed
the mean, resulting in a narrower bell curve. Conversely, a larger standaJ i e v i a

implies greater dispersion and a wider bell curve.

Together, the mean and stand ard\& \Mti~ if/~S ffbe the shape, location,
a n d

events
spread of a nonnal distrih~i~.'They aiJow us to·lmd~rstwd. the probability of
occurring within spec i~es or intervals in the distr ibi(~
.q,~r7-gBE SUCCESSFULL \ ~ . . .
useful in stat1st1 cal
The properties of the ~~a l distri~'!,PJ1!UeJ.L.12articul~ly
analysis. Many nat~ phenomena, sue~ as fil'e heights of lndividuals, !Q.
sco!es,
~easurement errors, and stock market retv,ms, tend to folJow\a no~a l d1stnb unon.
real-
This makes the no hi distribution a valu3ble tool for modeiit/g and analyzing
world data. { E~
• . I .• .0 :
,. ,.,. • l , V :
that the
Moreover, the ~tral unit th~m , a fun~ ental concept~m s tistic~, states
random
sum or average 'l?f a I e 0ntµtffier of in4~ dent and idefitic· Uy distributed
~ll?l es tend~ tQ, foll~ e a tl~ ~- -__ regardl~s f,'J}~ distribution of the
of
mdiVJdual vanabl~. ~~~e ore~ , m • s: ., :_M{lllal d1~_bu,lion a cornerstone
statistical inference &l!d 4YP.othesis t ~ ~ - - • / :+-; . /
~
~~:t,~ettl~.✓,11-sbapedrdcurve.
/ ', ¼ '
''"' , · ~ ·

The
The normal distributi~~, 'is
or deviation
mean represents the center av~~e: b~the Tilistnbution; while the -standa
two
measures the dispersion or spreacf"'·of:1ther~data . points around the mean. These
crucial
parameters are integral to the definition of the normal distribution and play a
role in understanding and analyzing data within this distribution.

Q7) Write short notes on the foil owing: (3 X 4 = 12)

(i) Local maxima

refer
Ans:- Local maxima, in the context of optimiz.ation or mathematical functions,
to points a function reaches its highest within a specific region or
v a l u e

e
e
w h e r

vicinity, but may not be the overa11 highest value of the function. It is a relativ
um.
maximum compared to the neighboring points but may not be the global maxim

12
·Jlead GPH Help BookforfGNtlU<&xam
ln sin,ple tenns loc . . . . . . . .
the funct· . ' . a1 maxima are peaks m a function w1th1n a hm1ted range, ·
where
· ·
ion stops 1ncreas·
.
d
•ng an starts decreasing. These points can occur 1n vano~s
n1athe t • 1
.~a tea functions, such as continuous functions ' discrete functions, or even tn
rea1-lhe scenarios.

It is _i,nportant to note that local maxima can exist at different locations within a
function, and the presence of local maxima can pose challenges in optimization
p~oblems. If a function has multiple local maxima, finding the global maximum (the
highest value across the entire function) becomes a complex task.

To determine whether a point is a local maximum, one needs to examine the behavior
of the function in its neighborhood. If the function values decrease in both directions
around the point, it is likely a Jocal maximum. However, it is crucial to verify whether
there are higher values elsewhere in the function domain.

In optimization problems, e· ~Qn~ ~i'oo4v ;,jJ\_Mima can lead to suboptimal

solutions if the searcl! algQp~ • efstrapped ln "'thesk ffe~ ~s. To overcome ~s

descent, simulated · • ing, [o£g6n~f£Qgo6diriisJo,..explg .· erent regions of the

function domain and 'i/the_glruml "1~H - -
(ii) Mapping af,ld fi ftion .

'. .. "'

. 13
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 IGNOU ALL SOLVED ASSIGNMENT PDF AVAILIIDO
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ier) & PDF FILE S AV AIL AB Ll~

~
The above mappmg diagram comisb of Iwo parallel columns. The first column ~
repeamts the domain of afunctionf and the other column for its range. Lines
or mows are drawn from domain to range, to reprc,cnt the relatk>n t,etween
IJr/ two elements.
A ftml:1b' ~ by the 1111PPins above in which each elemellt of the
..,.....
,_.• pair ed wtb euctly one element of the doimin is called oae-t
o-oae

Oolllain

~ _.__.-,; ....L_ s,cJ\,A..,

q,,~~~ m.
r7~
. ) BE SUCCESSFULL 1,,
lntbemapping mc~, ..o-..... • FAS TER - - ••
fi!nvmt in 1~' do............. ·1f,•~leamt of~lange ~ c s wit more t~--=-
~
lcme :-:Ii' . . wv elefflent(s).iifi'iiil •
ge ~ have map
CHIC e nt qi the mam il;!iJ.ll lcd Ll!)ID!-ODe
- l:r;., .
,,I)
~y-t
• •tlian
~ ~, ~: ~ ' ~,o-o•-~--e --P!'
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f]a,, -
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m in the". :_,_~ .,..__. with IIIOi'e than
nMIAA M •

'mmyrela' tions
· · u-. l'illge •the mailm •
·:-,no ta~-' -~. ---rr• llg·ll calJe UQ- lll mapped ,•.:11.
doau .. _:..._'
~' rew,_
.w.~, more.thali
• ;1-.,_· IOD. • .......
· ....,.v •IIIUUII•.. Ono-to•
•

R 14
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for IGNO
~
.Q· -m
 ~-unction
A function (or mapplag) fron1 Y \.·un1)tst~ uf two ~ct~ X tHld }
l: X -.
denote<l
together with a rule f that assigns to each x EX a !1nique element ofY,
argument
by f(:r)and read ../ of x.·· For x e X we call the element x of X an
of the function. and the corresponding element/(x) E Y the imag
e of x under
f (or the value off at x). The set Xis referred to as the domain (or source)
and the set Y as the codomlla (or t1raet) of the function.
the tcnns
We will use the word "function" roost frequently. In sopie contexts,
alternative
tn11formatloa and operator are also used as synonyms. All these
element
names for ''function" convey the notation /(x): the rule / takes the
and does something to f f - t o ~ • ~ (~)_ e r.
•
A function consld O !Je(lts: two se. ,~•u -...~, a rqleJthat assigns to
eacbelemeot/f .,.. ...t a"S ~~ ~tL 1-;. \
--F AS TE R- -
(Ill) Biases in the su
C
~ •
~
A m~
There can be: two t es o~ ~, in. •~- ~·" "1' VeV~~J
•. , ..
~ • • .. ,
t
nse bias.
iJ Pmcedaral ·•s: P ~ J tfJ~ n be in ~}f o of respo where
where people • trot !~ to• • • roperly; o~ ••tional bias.
either
sample cli()sen.a ~ofrep(esi . ,r-'1:tpe popll ··iQn~~Very often
·oftbe ~·< >~~ - :~ (e. c~ ·: • iypes of ~ •• • #biases also, like,
non-resj)OJ)s~,l>@.s/!,b# •_o· .1e.~- • _ ~ - 9V~; ind -mte rv:iewer
....ed frame
the •mforination,"N-~ ith,11• · i.;
bi~ '\\.ilere~a fnt-ervi~{,&i
• ..~~.·t'l9
T'l)~ts r - . u»a
•*

ofmmd. ... ••

(iv) Finite and infinite sets

15
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HAND WRITTEN ASSIGNM ENT HARD COPY (By Courier) & PDt- t'ILK;.;:J '""'~ ....""'_f..t;

Ans:-
A finite ~ct i:-. a ..;ct c.ontaining r,nl)- finite nu,nhcr ltf ck•rnent~.
For example, l J, 2, 31 ic; finite If A is a lini1e- set. we denote by ·I AI the nunioor
of elements in A. For example, f{l, 2, 3}1 • 3 and 0 0
A set with infinitely many elc:ments is called an infinite set. The set of alJ
positive inttaen (also ca11ed natural numbers) N == {1,2,~,···} is infinite: the
docs indicate that the sequence l. 2; 3 is to be continued indefillitely.
Tho set of all ,non..negative integen; is infinite. (There is no consensus about
whether to include zero in the set of natural numbers: some define the naturaJ
numbers to be the positive integers {I, 2, 3,··, while for others the tcnn
designates the non-negative i ~ {O, l, 2. 3, ... }. More examples of .infmite
l«S:

16
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