ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I. Grammar 1.2: The Noun (Continued)

THE NOUN (CONTINUED)

INTRODUCTION

In Lesson One, we learned to recognize and use different kinds of nouns: proper and common nouns,
collective nouns, concrete and abstract nouns, and specific and non-specific nouns.

In this lesson, we will learn about singular, plural, and possessive nouns. But first, let us learn some new
words.

NOUNS TO LEARN

1. "apostrophe" (noun) -- a punctuation mark (') used to show that something belongs to a person,
place, or thing.
Sentence: "An apostrophe is also used to show that a letter has been left out of a word."
Example: cannot > can't.

2. "computer" (noun) -- an electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical calculations

storing and processing information.
Sentence: "Many people in America now have personal computers at home."

3. "consonant" (noun) -- any letter in the English alphabet except "a," "e," "i," "o," and "u."
Sentence: "A consonant is a sound of speech produced by using the lips, teeth, throat, or tongue
to block the flow of air."

4. "killer whale" (noun) -- a very large black and white dolphin that hunts in packs and feeds on
large fish and seals.
Sentence: "Most killer whales are friendly to human beings."

5. "porpoise" (noun) -- a small, friendly marine mammal related to the whale, with a blunt snout
and a torpedo-shaped body about two meters long.
Sentence: "Porpoises are found in seas, gulfs, and oceans throughout the world."

6. "relationship" (noun) -- an emotional connection between two or more persons; an association;

a kinship.
Sentence: "Adam and Eve entered into an honorable relationship that was so strong and so
satisfying that they became as one."

7. "vowel" (noun) -- "a," "e," "i," "o," or "u."

Sentence: "A vowel is a sound made when air passes freely through the voice box and the
mouth.

OTHER WORDS TO LEARN

 1. "to communicate" (infinitive) [verb preceded by "to"] -- to exchange or pass along thoughts; to
give and receive knowledge.
Sentence: "Unlike animals, human beings are able to communicate with God and to enjoy a
close relationship with him."

2. "cultivate" (verb) -- to grow; to tend.

Sentence: "Adam cultivated the garden of Eden and gathered its fruits."

3. "intelligent" (adjective) -- having intelligence; having the capacity to think, learn, and
understand.
Sentence: "Human beings are generally more intelligent than animals."

4. "irregular" (adjective) -- not conforming to the rules or to the usual pattern.

Sentence: "Irregular nouns are nouns that do not follow the rules when changing from singular
to plural."

5. "responsible" (adjective) -- answerable; accountable; expected to give an account.

Sentence: "God has made us responsible for ruling over the animals of the earth."

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

Look around you. Describe what you see. Are there two or more of the same item? If so, you will have to
use plural nouns to describe them. Examples: books, lamps, desks, chairs, pencils, pens, boxes, pictures,
clocks, waste baskets. Sentence: "There are three chairs and one desk in my office."

A singular noun is a noun that names only one person, place, or thing.

A plural noun is a noun that names more than one person, place, or thing.

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns

woman women

tree trees

truth truths

fear fears

party parties

How do you make a noun plural?

Most nouns can be made plural by simply adding "s."

Examples: bird--birds; flower-- flowers; tree--trees.

However, nouns that end with "s," "sh," "ch," "x," or "z" are made plural by adding "es."
Examples: glass--glasses; wish--wishes; church--churches; fox--foxes. Sentence: "The foxes have holes to
live in, and the birds have nests to live in, but the Son of Man has no place where he can rest his head"
(Luke 9:58).

Also, nouns that end with an "o" preceded by a consonant are made plural by adding "es."
Examples: mosquito--mosquitoes; potato--potatoes; hero--heroes. Sentence: "Idaho is famous for its
potatoes."

Nouns that end with a consonant followed by a "y" are made plural by changing the "y" to "i" and adding
"es."
Examples: library--libraries; secretary--secretaries; baby--babies; city-- cities. Sentence: "Most cities have
several good libraries."

However, when a noun ends with a vowel followed by a "y," it is made plural by simply adding "s."
Examples: journey--journeys; key--keys; toy--toys. Sentence: "He has nine keys in his pocket."

Most nouns that end with "f" or "fe" are made plural by changing the ending to "ves."
Example: knife--knives; leaf--leaves; wife--wives. Sentence: "She has twenty-three knives in her kitchen."

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns

bird birds

fox foxes

hero heroes

baby babies

toy toys

wife wives

IRREGULAR NOUN FORMS

Some nouns are spelled the same, whether they are singular or plural.

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns

antelope antelope

deer deer

fish fish

sheep sheep

Example: "My brother caught six fish."

POSSESSIVE NOUNS

A possessive noun is a noun that indicates ownership or relationship.

Examples: the boy's bicycle, the girl's doll, the man's strength, the woman's beauty.

Most singular nouns are made possessive by simply adding an apostrophe (') and an "s."
Examples: child--child's; teacher--teacher's. Sentence: "This is the teacher's book."

The apostrophe is a helpful little tool. It is used

(a) to show possession and relationship,
(b) to take the place of a missing letter in a word, and
(c) to form the plural of letters and numbers.
Think how much more difficult the English language would be without it. Instead of saying "God's
world," we would have to say "the world that belongs to God."
Examples: "This is the carpenter's hammer." "The nation's honor must be respected." "That's right." "It's
great to be alive!" "There are two a's in the word 'altar.'"

Plural nouns that end in "s" or "es" are made possessive by adding an apostrophe (') to the end of the
word.
Examples: candles--candles'; daughters--daughters'; mothers--mothers'; ships-- ships'; teachers--
teachers'.
Sentence: "Are you going to the Mothers' and Daughters' dinner?"

Plural nouns that do not end with "s" are made possessive by adding an apostrophe (') and an "s" to the
end of the word.
Examples: children--children's; men--men's; people--people's; women--women's.
Sentence: "This store specializes in children's clothing."

YOUR ASSIGNMENT

1. Answer the questions in Grammar Lesson 2.

2. Then, read Reading Assignment 2 and look for nouns. Count the nouns and notice how
important nouns are to the English language. Without nouns, there would be no substance or
content to our communication. We would not know who or what was being discussed or where
the action was taking place.
I. Reading 1.2: What is Man?

When God finished creating the animals, he said, "Now, we will make man. We will make man a copy of
ourselves. Man will be like us." So God made a man. The man was a spiritual being like God. But unlike
God, the man had a physical body.

God did not create the man by giving a command. Instead, he took some dust from the ground and
shaped it into a body that had arms, legs, hands, feet, and a heart. This body had a head with eyes, ears,
a nose, a mouth, and a brain. Somehow, God molded red clay into a perfect human body. Then God
breathed life into the man's nose, and he became a living being. The man stood up before God, straight
and tall. God called the man "Adam," meaning "earth" or "red clay."

The Garden of Eden

Then the Lord God planted a garden in a place called Eden. The word "Eden" means "Pleasantness." The
Garden of Eden stretched hundreds of kilometers in every direction. It had green grass, colorful flowers,
shade trees, and every fruit tree that was good for food. A river flowed through the garden and watered
the grass, trees, and flowers.

Two Special Trees

In the middle of the garden, the Lord God put two special trees. One was "the tree of life"; the other was
"the tree that gives knowledge about good and evil." No one knows exactly what these trees looked like.
We only know they were very beautiful. The Garden of Eden was like heaven on earth. Some people
have called it "Paradise." Surely, it was the kind of place where any man could be happy.

The Lord God gave Adam a job. God put the man in the garden of Eden to work the soil, to take care of
the garden, and to gather its fruits.

A Command and a Warning

God said to Adam, "You may eat from any tree in the garden, but you must not eat from the tree that
gives knowledge about good and evil. If you eat fruit from that tree, you will die."

Adam Names the Animals

Then, the Lord God gave Adam another job. God brought every animal of the field and every bird of the
air to Adam and told Adam to give each one a name. Adam was not afraid of the animals, and they were
not afraid of him. Adam must have studied the birds and animals carefully. One by one, they came to
him. Adam gave names to all the tame animals, to all the birds of the air, and to all the wild animals in
the forest.

Adam is Lonely

Even though Adam was surrounded by animals and other beautiful things in the garden, he was lonely.
No animal in the garden could talk to him. Adam noticed that all the birds and animals had mates. There
were male ducks and female ducks, and there were male and female elephants. Every animal had its
mate, but Adam had no one to be his companion. He was all alone. He could not find a helper that was
right for him.

The First Woman

The Lord God said, "I see that it is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a person like him to help
him."

So, the Lord God put Adam to sleep and took a rib from his body. Then, he used the rib from the man to
make a woman. After Adam awoke, the Lord God brought the woman to him to be his wife.

When Adam opened his eyes and looked at the woman that God had brought to him, he said, "Finally! A
person like me. Her bones are my bones. Her body is from my body. She was taken out of man, so I will
name her Woman." The woman was called "Eve," meaning "life." Eve became the mother of every
human being on earth who lived after her.

The Two Become One

Thus, God made Adam and Eve in his own likeness. God made them as a copy of himself. God made
them male and female and gave them a blessing. God said to them, "Have many children. Fill the earth
and control it."

That is why a man leaves his father and mother and is joined to his wife. In this way, two people become
one. The man and his wife were naked, but they were not ashamed.

Fellowship with God

For a time (no one knows how long), Adam and Eve lived and worked together just as God intended.
They took care of the animals, cultivated the garden, and picked the fruits and berries. They also walked
and talked with God as good friends talk to each other.

What Is Man?

The Bible tells us about the beginning of human history and shows us what human beings were meant to
be. What have we learned from this lesson about ourselves and other people? What have we discovered
about human nature?

1. A human being is more than an animal. We may act like animals, snarling and snapping at one another
and living for pleasure, but that is not what we were meant to be. We were created to live in a better
way.

It is clear in this story that the human being was God's greatest creation and that God had something
special in mind for humans. When God created light, water, space, dry land, plants, and the sun, moon,
and stars, he simply gave a command, and they came into being. When he created a human being,
however, God became personally involved. With great care, he formed a human body out of the dust of
the earth and breathed into the man's nose the breath of life. The man became a living being, a being
similar to God. God commanded the human beings to rule over the animals and to take care of them.
We should not worship the animals that God created. We should worship only God.

2. A human being is like God mentally. We are much less intelligent than God but more intelligent than
animals. A human being can learn to speak a language, write letters, keep records, draw pictures, read
books, solve mathematical problems, reason, and plan ahead. Human beings have invented the
automobile, the airplane, the computer, and rockets that have put people on the moon. The porpoise
and killer whale (orca) have large brains and are quite intelligent, but they are not as intelligent as most
human beings. They do not capture and tame people. They do not train men and women to jump
through hoops and swim for the entertainment of other whales and porpoises. God gave human beings
intelligence similar to his own and has made us responsible for ruling over all the animals of the earth.

3. A human being is like God in loving others. God is love, and God has given human beings a loving
nature like his own. To be happy, we must love and be loved. Without love, life is not worth living. Adam
was unfulfilled in the Garden of Eden until God gave him a mate. Eve was God's answer to Adam's need
for companionship. The first couple entered an honorable love relationship that was so strong and so
satisfying that they were not like two individuals. They became as one. Love was like a rope that bound
Adam and Eve together in perfect unity. It is reasonable to believe that God created human beings in his
own likeness because he wanted to love someone and because he wanted someone to love and honor
him in return. It makes God sad when we turn away from him and refuse to return his love. People, like
God, want to be loved and honored.

4. A human being deserves honor and respect. God has created human beings in his own likeness.
Because God is honorable, human beings are also worthy of honor and respect. God loves and values
everyone. He loves and values you. He also loves and values others. Therefore, we must not insult, curse,
injure, or dishonor any human being. Everyone of every race is worthy of honor and respect.

5. A human being is capable of knowing God. Of all God's creatures, only the human being seeks after
the Creator in order to know him. No animal yearns to walk and talk with God or to worship him. Adam
and Eve talked with God as naturally as they talked with each other. What animal has ever bowed down
before God in prayer or tried to communicate with him? Unlike animals, human beings have the ability
to know God and to have a close relationship with him.

Looking Ahead

Our need-to-know God and to have a close relationship with him is the central message of the Bible. As
we continue our study, we will see how the love relationship between God and mankind was broken and
how God developed a plan to bring us back to him.

The good news is that even when we fail to be the kind of people we were meant to be, God is eager to
forgive us and lift us up again. We are loved. We are valued.

Now, answer the questions in this lesson.

Scripture References: Genesis 1-2; Psalm 8; Luke 24:39; John 4:24; Colossians 3:12-14; Hebrews 2:6-9
I. Grammar 1.3: The Noun (Continued)

THE NOUN (CONTINUED)

INTRODUCTION

As stated in Lessons One and Two, a noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing.

You have learned that there are various kinds of nouns: common and proper nouns, collective nouns,
concrete and abstract nouns, and specific and non-specific nouns. You have also learned how to change
a noun from singular to plural and how to make a noun possessive.

In this lesson, we will learn that all nouns have four qualities known as "properties": (1) gender,
(2) person, (3) number, and (4) case.

NOUNS TO LEARN

1. "boundary" (noun) A border or a limit.

Sentence: "God has put boundaries around Satan."

2. "case" (noun) A characteristic or form of a word that indicates the relation of that word to other
words in the sentence.
Sentence: "The subject of a sentence is always in the Nominative Case."

3. "descendant" (noun) An offspring.

Sentence: "Every human being is a descendant of Adam and Eve."

4. "gender" (noun) A characteristic or form of a word indicating male sex, female sex, or neither
sex.
For example, the word "stallion" is masculine in gender, and the word "mare" is feminine.

5. "number" (noun) A characteristic or form of a word indicating whether the word refers to one or
more than one.
Sentence: "The word 'man' is singular in number, but the word 'men' is plural."

6. "temptation" (noun) Something that leads, invites, or draws a person into evil
Sentence: "When we are tempted, God gives us a way to escape that temptation."

OTHER WORDS TO LEARN

1. "embarrass" (verb) To make uncomfortable or ill at ease.

Sentence: "When Adam and Eve realized they had no clothes on, they were embarrassed."

2. "fascinating" (adjective) Attractive; spellbinding.

Sentence: "The Biblical story about Adam and Eve is a fascinating story."

3. "invisible" (adjective) Not visible; that cannot be seen.

Sentence: "The invisible God somehow walked and talked with Adam and Eve."

4. "spiritually" (adverb) Concerning the spirit or soul.

Sentence: "Adam and Eve died spiritually the moment they disobeyed God."
PROPERTIES OF NOUNS

All nouns have four characteristics called "properties":

(1) gender,
(2) person,
(3) number, and
(4) case.
Let us look at these properties one by one.

1. Gender, in the English language, is "natural," not grammatical. That is, the gender of a noun is
determined not by the grammatical form of the word but by the sex of the person, place, or thing that is
named. Gender, in English, denotes male sex, female sex, either sex, or neither sex.

Masculine gender denotes the male sex.

Examples of masculine nouns are as follows: boy, brother, bull, cock, colt, father, stallion, husband, king,
man, son, and uncle.

Feminine gender denotes the female sex.

Examples of feminine nouns are as follows: girl, sister, cow, hen, filly, mother, mare, wife, queen, woman,
daughter, and aunt.

Common gender denotes either sex.

Examples of common gender nouns are: birds, cattle, children, citizens, driver, friend, lawyer, neighbor,
parent, relative, singer, and worker.

Neuter gender denotes neither male nor female sex.

Examples of neuter gender nouns are as follows: books, cabinet, city, desk, house, ink, lamp, pen, river,
tree.

2. "Person" is a characteristic or form that lets us know whether the word relates to the speaker, to the
person spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken about. A first-person noun refers to a person who is
doing the speaking.

Example: "I, John, was on the island of Patmos" (Revelation 1:9).

In this sentence, the noun "John" is in the first person because John is the speaker.

A second-person noun refers to a person who is being addressed.

Example: "Friends, Romans, and countrymen, lend me your ears."
In this famous speech from Julius Caesar, the nouns "friends," "Romans," and "countrymen" are in the
second person because they name people who are being spoken to.

A third-person noun refers to a person or thing being spoken about.

Example: "In the beginning, God created the earth and sky."
The noun "God" is third person because he is the person being discussed.
3. "Number" is something in the form of a noun that tells us whether the noun refers to only one
person, place, or thing or more than one. The singular noun names only one person, place, or thing. The
plural noun names more than one person, place, or thing.

Singular Plural

apple apples

book books

cat cats

dog dogs

girl girls

road roads

Some nouns do not have a plural form. These nouns are called "non-count" nouns. Material things like
bread, butter, coffee, gold, oxygen, silver, sugar, and water are not counted. Instead, they are measured.
We do not say, "Give me two breads." We say, "Give me two loaves of bread," or "two slices of bread."

Abstract nouns are non-count nouns. Abstract nouns include concepts like freedom and liberty;
emotions like love, greed, and hate; fields of study like biology, chemistry, and engineering; qualities like
beauty, excellence, and peace; and recreational activities like gardening, swimming, and tennis. None of
these abstract nouns has a plural form.

1. "Case" is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words in the sentence. English nouns have
three cases:
(a) Nominative,
(b) Objective, and
(c) Possessive.

a. The nominative case uses a noun (or pronoun) as the subject of a sentence or as the predicate
following a linking verb. ("Nominative" means "pertaining to a name." See the Introductory Lesson
concerning the "subject" and "predicate.") When a noun (or pronoun) is the subject of a sentence, it is
called the "subject nominative."
Example: "The moon is shining." In this sentence, "moon" is the subject nominative.
When a noun (or pronoun) is the predicate of the sentence following a linking verb, it is called the
"predicate nominative."
Example: "God is love." In this sentence, the noun "love" is the predicate nominative.

b. The objective case is using a noun (or pronoun) as an object in a sentence. That is, if a noun (or
pronoun) receives the action of a transitive verb, that noun is in the objective case. A transitive verb is a
verb whose action carries over to another person, place, or thing. The person, place, or thing upon which
the action has an effect is "the object" of the verb.
Example: "John hit Mary." The noun "Mary" is the object of the verb "hit" and is, therefore, in the
objective case. Or, if a noun (or pronoun) follows a preposition, it is in the objective case. Example:
"Mary went to town." The noun "town" is the object of the preposition "to" and is in the objective case.

c. The possessive case uses a noun (or pronoun) to show ownership or relationship.
Examples: Amy's toy, Carla's doll, Debbie's hair, Dan's saw, Matthew's shoes, Tina's book.

As we noticed in Lesson Two, a singular possessive noun is formed by adding an apostrophe (') and an
"s" to the noun.
Examples: boy's hat, girl's bicycle, teacher's book, citizen's rights.

A plural possessive noun ending in "s" is formed by adding the apostrophe only.
Examples: boys' hats, girls' bicycles, teachers' books, citizens' rights.

Your Assignment

1. Test your understanding of English nouns by answering the quiz on Grammar Lesson 3. When
finished, click the 'submit' link, and your answers will be placed in your private 'box.'

2. Next, read Lesson 3 of the Reading Assignments. On a piece of paper, list ten nouns that are
used in the lesson. Beside each noun, indicate whether the noun is (1) 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person;
(2) masculine, feminine, common, or neuter gender; (3) singular, plural, or non-count number;
and (4) nominative, objective, or possessive case.

3. After reading Reading Assignment 3, test your comprehension of the lesson by answering the
questions in Lesson Three. Exercise your skill at expressing yourself in English by answering the
Thought Questions. Click the 'submit' link, and your answers will be placed in your private 'box.'

4. Your teacher will grade your answers on both quizzes and, if necessary, rewrite your answers to
the Thought Questions in understandable English. Your graded lessons will be in your private
'box' within 24 hours after you submit both quizzes. Your teacher will also release Reading
Assignment 4 for you to study.
If you feel that you need to do so, please review Lessons One through Three before going on to
Lesson Four. Printing these lessons will enable you to review and study the lessons when you are
not online.

I. Grammar 1.4: The Pronoun

THE PRONOUN

You have learned how to recognize and to use various kinds of nouns. You are now ready to learn about
pronouns.

PRONOUNS TO REMEMBER

1. "personal pronoun" A pronoun that shows by its form the "person" of the noun it replaces. (We
will explain the meaning of "person" later in this lesson.)
 Sentence: "I haven't seen him today. Have you seen him?" "I," "you," and "him" are personal
pronouns.

2. "possessive pronoun" A pronoun that indicates ownership or relationship.

Sentence: "Adam and Eve were very happy in their garden home." "Their" is a possessive
pronoun.

3. "intensive pronoun" A "self" pronoun that intensifies another noun or pronoun. Sentence:
"God, himself, spoke."

4. "reflexive pronoun" A "self" pronoun that serves as a direct object or the object of a
preposition. Sentence: "Cain felt sorry for himself." "Himself" reflects or refers back to Cain.

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "antecedent" (noun) The word or words that a pronoun replaces.

Sentence: "Greg pitched the ball, and Rudy hit it out of the park." "Ball" is the antecedent of "it."

2. "confront" (verb) To come face to face with; to oppose.

Sentence: "God confronted Cain with his sin."

3. "historical" (adjective) Based on the events of history.

Sentence: "The historical account of Cain and Abel teaches us some important lessons."

4. "irresponsible" (adjective) unreliable; unwilling to accept responsibility.

Sentence: "Cain was irresponsible."

5. "jealousy" (noun) Resentment of a rival.

Sentence: "Cain's jealousy led him to kill his own brother."

6. "majesty" (noun) The dignity, greatness, and authority of a ruler.

Sentence: "Worship is our response to the majesty of God."

7. "resentment" (noun) A feeling of displeasure and anger that comes from being injured or
offended.
Sentence: "Resentment is like poison to the soul."

8. "trust" (verb) To believe in; to rely on; to depend on; to have confidence in.
Sentence: "Abel trusted God and obeyed his commands."

9. "worship" (verb) To show reverence, respect, and love for God.

Sentence: "We worship God, not because he demands it, but because he deserves it.

WHAT IS A PRONOUN?

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. We use pronouns rather than repeating nouns again
and again. Notice how strange and awkward the following sentence sounds: "Dan took Dan's hammer
and saw and put Dan's hammer and saw on Dan's workbench."
And notice how much better the sentence sounds when pronouns are substituted for some of the
nouns: "Dan took his hammer and saw and put them on his workbench." The words used in the place of
"Dan's" and "hammer and saw" are called "pronouns."

There are five major classes of pronouns:

(1) personal,
(2) indefinite,
(3) relative,
(4) interrogative, and
(5) demonstrative.
This lesson focuses on personal pronouns. We will examine the other four types in Lesson Five.

WHAT IS A PERSONAL PRONOUN?

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its form the "person" of the noun it replaces.

What do we mean by "person"?

A noun or pronoun is in the "first person" if it refers to the person speaking.
It is in the "second person" if it refers to the person spoken to.
It is in the "third person" if it refers to the person or thing spoken about.
Example: "I speak. You whisper. He shouts." In these sentences, "I" is first person, "you" is second
person, and "he" is third person.
We have been using personal pronouns ever since we started speaking English. Three of our favorite
words are "I," "me," and "my." These are "first person" pronouns.

A personal pronoun also shows by its form the "case" of the noun it replaces.

What do we mean by "case"?

If a pronoun is used as a *subject in a sentence, it is in the "nominative case."
If it is used as an *object in a sentence, it is in the "objective case."
If it indicates *ownership or relationship, it is in the "possessive case."
Examples: "My sheep listen to my voice. I know them, and they follow me." The pronoun "my" indicates
ownership or relationship and is in the possessive case. The pronouns "I" and "they" are used
as subjects in the sentence and are in the nominative case. The
pronouns "them" and "me" are objects and are in the objective case.

If a personal pronoun ends with "self" or "selves" and refers back to its antecedent, it is in the
"reflexive case."
Example: "I am writing this myself."

Notice, in the following table the various forms that personal pronouns take, depending on their
"person," "case," and "number."

Person Case Singular Plural

First Nominative I we

"" Possessive my/mine our/ours

Person Case Singular Plural

"" Objective me us

"" Reflexive myself ourselves

Second Nominative you you

"" Possessive your/yours your/yours

"" Objective you you

"" Reflexive yourself yourselves

Third Nominative he/she/it they

"" Possessive his/her/hers/its their/theirs

"" Objective him/her/it them

"" Reflexive himself/herself/itself themselves

Practice making sentences with the above pronouns.

Examples: "I go." "You go." "She goes."
"It goes." "We go." "You go." "They go."
"Please go with me." "He is going with us." "I, myself, am going." "You should go, too."
"The decision is yours."
"She hit the ball." "It flew over the fence." "They ran after it."
"She said it was hers." "They said it was theirs." "They hit her." "She hit them."

THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

A possessive pronoun is a pronoun which shows ownership or relationship. Some possessive

pronouns are used before nouns, while others are used alone.

Possessive pronouns that are used before nouns are "my," "our," "your," "his," "her," "its," and "their."
Sentence: "Is this your car?" (Possessive pronouns that come before nouns act as adjectives and are also
called "possessive adjectives.")

Possessive pronouns that cannot be used before nouns are as follows: "mine," "ours," "yours,"
"hers," and "theirs." These possessive pronouns stand alone.
Sentences: "This car is not mine."
"We sold ours."
"Is it yours?" "No, it is hers."
The possessive pronoun "his" can be used before a noun, as in, "This is his money." Or it can stand
alone, as in, "The money is his."

Possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe ('). The possessive form of

"who" is "whose," not "who's."
Example: "Whose car is that?"

People sometimes confuse possessive pronouns (whose, its, your, their) with pronoun- verb
contractions (who's [who is], it's [it is], you're [you are], they're [they are]). You can avoid confusion by
remembering one simple rule:
"Possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe."

SELF PRONOUNS

Some pronouns end in "self" or "selves."

myself,
ourselves,
yourself,
yourselves,
himself,
herself,
itself, and
themselves.

When a "self" pronoun emphasizes another noun or pronoun, it is an intensive pronoun. Example:
"God, himself, confronted Cain." In this sentence, "himself" refers to God and emphasizes God. God is
the subject, and Cain is the object. "Himself" stresses and intensifies God.

When a "self" pronoun serves as the object of a preposition (such as "at," "by," "for," "in," or "on"), it is
a reflexive pronoun. Example: "Cain felt sorry for himself." In this sentence, "himself" is the object of the
preposition "for." Therefore, in this sentence, "himself" is a reflexive pronoun.

Pronouns Must Agree with their Antecedents

The word "antecedent" means "coming before." The antecedent of a pronoun is a word or group of
words to which a pronoun refers.
Example: "When Abel grew up, he became a keeper of sheep." "He" refers back to Abel. Therefore,
"Abel" is the antecedent of "he."

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. In the example above, the
antecedent "Abel" is masculine, third person, singular. Therefore, the pronoun must also be masculine,
third person, and singular. It would be incorrect to say, "When Abel grew up, she became a keeper of
sheep." It would also be incorrect to say that "Eve was not as happy as he has been in the garden of
Eden."
I. Grammar 1.5: The Pronoun (Continued)

THE PRONOUN (CONTINUED)

In Lesson Four, you learned to identify and to use personal, possessive, intensive, and reflexive
pronouns. You learned that the forms of these pronouns vary according to person, number, and case,
and that pronouns must agree with their antecedents. In this lesson, you will be introduced to four other
classes of pronouns.

PRONOUNS TO REMEMBER

1. "demonstrative pronoun" A pronoun that singles out the person, place, or thing to which it
refers.
Examples: this, that, these, those.
Sentence: "This made the Lord sad in his heart." In this sentence, "this" is a demonstrative
pronoun.

2. "indefinite pronoun" A pronoun that does not identify its antecedent. A pronoun that refers to
an unspecified person or thing.
Sentence: "God promised to send someone to defeat Satan." In this sentence, "someone" is an
indefinite pronoun.

3. "interrogative pronoun" A pronoun that asks a question.

Examples: who, what, which, whom, whose.
Sentence: "God said to Adam, `Who told you that you were naked?'" In this sentence, "who" is
used as an interrogative pronoun.

4. "relative pronoun" A pronoun that introduces a group of words that tell about the antecedent.
Examples: that, which, who, whom, whose.
Sentence: "Noah trusted God and did all the things that God commanded." Here, "that" is a
relative pronoun.

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "abuse" (verb) To use wrongly; to mistreat; to hurt by treating badly.

Sentence: "Evil people often abuse members of their own family."

2. "altar" (noun) A flat-topped pile of dirt or stones on which a gift is offered to God.
Sentence: "Noah built an altar and worshiped the Lord."

3. "Arctic Zone" (noun) Cold area near the North Pole.

Sentence: "The oil fields in northern Alaska prove that the Arctic Zone was once covered by
vegetation."

4. "cruelty" (noun) The quality of being cruel or causing pain and suffering in others
Sentence: "In Noah's day, people filled the earth with anger and cruelty."

5. "geologist" (noun) One who does a scientific study of the history and structure of the earth.
Sentence: "Many of the questions that geologists have asked find answers in the biblical account
of the flood."
 6. "righteousness" (noun) The state of being just and right.
Sentence: "Noah has been called 'a preacher of righteousness.'"

7. "sacrifice" (verb) To offer something to God as a gift.

Sentence: "Noah took some of the birds and animals and sacrificed them on an altar as a gift to
God."

8. "transmit" (verb) To cause to spread; to send from one person, place, or thing to another.
Sentence: "People are dying of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases."

9. "tropical" (adjective) Hot and humid; sultry.

Sentence: "Why would a tropical area, covered by vegetation, suddenly become a frozen
wasteland?"

10. "violence" (noun) Physical force used in a way that causes damage, destruction, or injury.
Sentence: "When God looked at the earth, he saw violence everywhere."

MORE ABOUT PRONOUNS

We have examined the personal pronoun. We have seen that a personal pronoun can be used as a
subject in a sentence or as an object in a sentence (as a possessive pronoun and or a reflexive pronoun).
Now let us examine four more classes of pronouns:
(1) indefinite,
(2) relative,
(3) interrogative, and
(4) demonstrative.

1. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not specify its antecedent. Often, its antecedent is
unknown. Notice the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences:
"Does anyone know anything about tax law?"
"No one said anything."
"Each waited for someone else to respond."
"All, anyone," "anything," "no one," "each," and "someone" are all indefinite pronouns.

Some indefinite pronouns are singular:

Examples: all, another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, neither, nobody, no one, one, nothing, other, somebody, someone, something.
Positive statement: "Tom saw something on the road."
Negative statement: "Tim didn't hear anything."
Question: "Did you see anyone in the hall?"
Additional examples:
"Susan said nothing."
"Noah preached to the people, but no one listened to him."
"God loves everyone and does not want anyone to be hurt."
The pronouns "something," "anything," "anyone," "nothing," "no one," and "everyone" are
indefinite pronouns because they do not take the place of particular nouns.
 Other indefinite pronouns are plural.
Examples: both, few, many, several.
Sentence: "Many are called, but few are chosen." (Note: If we put a noun after each of these
pronouns, the pronouns become adjectives. "Many people are called, but few people are
chosen." "Many" and "few" are now pronominal adjectives.)

2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that connects its antecedent with a group of words that give
more information about it. The relative pronouns are "that," "which," "who," "whom," and
"whose."
Sentences: "Noah was a good man who always walked with God." "Who" is the relative pronoun
that introduces the clause "who always walked with God." The clause tells us something about
the antecedent, "man."

The relative pronouns "who" and "whom" generally refer to a person or to people.
Examples: "The girl who is standing outside the door is my niece."
"The woman to whom you spoke is my mother."
"Noah was a good man who always walked with God."

The relative pronoun "whose" shows ownership or relationship and is, therefore, possessive.
Example: "The woman whose picture graces my desk is my wife."

The relative pronouns "that" and "which" generally refer to places, animals, or things.
Examples: "Any house that Dan builds is a good one."
"A relative pronoun introduces a clause which tells us something about the noun or pronoun
that comes before it."
"The happiness that Adam and Eve enjoyed in the garden of Eden disappeared."

3. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. The interrogative pronouns are
"what," "which," "who," "whom," and "whose."

"Who," "whom," and "whose" are used to ask a question about a person or people.
Examples: "Who came to see you this morning?"
"To whom shall we turn for help?"
"Whose book is this?"

Some people have trouble remembering when to use "who" and when to use "whom." You can
avoid this confusion by remembering the following rule: "Who" is the nominative form of the
pronoun, and "whom" is the objective form.
Examples: "Who will go for us?" "Whom shall we send?" By turning the second question around,
it reads, "We shall send whom?" "Whom" is the object of the verb "send."

"What" refers to a person, place, thing, idea, or event.

Examples: "What are we having for dinner tonight?"
 "What man among you is without sin?"
"Which" calls for a choice between two or more persons, places, or things.
Example: "We have coffee and tea. Which do you prefer?"
"We have pencils and pens. Which do you want to use?"

4. A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points out a person, place, or thing. There are only
four demonstrative pronouns: "this," "that," "these," and "those."
Examples: "That happened to me, too."
"This is the house that Jack built."
"I want some of those."
"Are these the letters you wrote?"

Demonstrative pronouns "this/that" and "these/those" often indicate nearness to the speaker.
Examples: "This [in my hand] is my pen. That [on the desk] is your pen."

Distance Singular Plural

Near: this these

Far: that those

Your Assignment

1. Test your understanding of English pronouns by answering the quiz on Grammar Lesson 5. When
finished, click the 'submit' link, and your answers will be placed in your private 'box.'

2. Next, read Reading Assignment 5. After you have read the lesson, read it again. On a fresh sheet
of paper, write down five indefinite pronouns, five relative pronouns, five interrogative
pronouns, and five demonstrative pronouns used in Lesson 5. Notice how they are used in
sentences.

3. Test your comprehension of English by answering the quiz on Reading Assignment 5. Exercise
your skill at expressing yourself in English by answering the Thought questions. Click the 'submit'
link, and your answers will be placed in your private 'box.'

4. Your teacher will grade your answers on both quizzes and, if necessary, rewrite your answers to
the Thought Questions in understandable English. Your graded lessons will be in your private
'box' within 24 hours after you submit both quizzes. Your teacher will also release lessons 6 for
you to study

5. I. Grammar 1.6: The Adjective

6. THE ADJECTIVE
7. Pretend that you are going to the airport to meet a man you have never seen before. You are
talking to him on the telephone. You are describing yourself to him so that he will recognize you in
the crowd. In order to give him a clear mental picture of what you look like, you must use
adjectives. Are you tall, short, or medium-sized? Are you thin, heavy-set, or average in build? Is
your hair black, brown, red, or blond?
8. An adjective is a word that is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. But, before we begin our
study of adjectives, let us learn some new words.
9. ADJECTIVES TO REMEMBER

1. "descriptive adjective" An adjective that describes a noun by telling about some quality that
belongs to the noun.
Sentence: "I will cause you to become a great nation." The word "great" is a descriptive adjective.

2. "limiting adjective" An adjective that restricts, limits, or sets boundaries on a noun or pronoun
without describing any of its qualities.
Sentences: "The Lord made a promise to Abram." The article "a" refers to only one promise and
is, therefore, a "limiting adjective."

3. "predicate adjective" An adjective that follows a linking verb and tells something about the
subject of the sentence.
Sentence: "Abram became sleepy and fell asleep." "Sleepy" is a predicate adjective that
describes Abram.

4. "pronominal adjective" A pronoun that is used as an adjective; a pronoun that tells about a
noun or another pronoun.
Sentence: "Get seven pairs of all the birds." The pronominal adjective "all" answers the question,
"How many birds?"

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "agreement" (noun) An arrangement between two or more persons whereby both parties
agree to do certain things.
Sentence: "God made an agreement with Abram."

2. "articles" (noun) The limiting adjectives "a," "an," and "the."

Sentence: "The word 'the' is known as 'the definite article.'"

3. "Babylonia" (noun) An ancient empire in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valley, the area that is
located in modern Iraq.
Sentence: "Abram was born in Ur of Babylonia."

4. "circumcise" (verb) To cut off the loose fold of skin that covers the end of the penis.
Sentence: "Abraham was ninety-nine years old when he was circumcised as proof of his
agreement with God."

5. "column" (noun) A slender upright shaft or pillar, or anything that looks like a pillar.
Sentence: "The column of smoke and fire passed near Abram."

6. "faith" (noun) Confident belief in God, or in anything; trust in God.

Sentence: "When God saw Abram's faith, he accepted Abram as if he were a perfect man."

7. "idolatry" (noun) The worship of carved or molded images.

Sentence: "When God called Abram out of Ur, he called him out of idolatry."

8. "mistress" (noun) A woman who rules over others or has control of them.
Sentence: "The Lord said to Hagar, 'Sarai is your mistress. Go home to her and obey her.'"

9. "submission" (noun) The act of submitting, yielding, or surrendering to the will of another.
Sentence: "Abram bowed down before the Lord as a sign of submission."
10. THE ADJECTIVE
11. Suppose you go to the market to buy some fruit. There, you find a box of beautiful peaches that
are just right for eating. How would you describe them? You look at their color and notice that
they are yellow and pink. Then you feel one and discover that it is soft to the touch. You say,
"These peaches are ripe." You take a bite of one, and you say, "Ummmm! This one is sweet and
juicy." The words "beautiful," "yellow," "pink," "soft," "ripe," "sweet," and "juicy" are all adjectives
that describe the peaches.
12. Now, let us count the peaches: one peach, two peaches, three peaches, four peaches, and five
peaches. And let us number them: first peach, second peach, third peach, fourth peach, fifth
peach. We have just made another list of adjectives.
13. An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. An adjective usually provides
information about the word it describes by answering the questions, "What kind?" "How many?"
"Which one?" "How much?"
14. TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
15. Adjectives may be divided into two main classes:
(1) descriptive adjectives, and
(2) limiting adjectives.

1. A DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE tells about a noun by describing some quality that belongs to it.
Examples: a tall tree, a red car, a long rope, the wet pavement, a round table, a little girl. A
descriptive adjective describes a person, place, or thing.

Some descriptive adjectives are formed from common nouns.

Examples: "a brick house," "an iron skillet, "a bronze statue." Sentence: "Abraham Lincoln lived in
a log cabin.

Other descriptive adjectives are formed from proper nouns and are capitalized.
Examples: "Greek mythology," "Roman numerals," "Chinese lanterns," "Spanish guitar,"
"American Dream," "Japanese cars," and "Italian cooking."
Sentence: "He wore an African headdress to the party."

In English, a descriptive adjective usually comes before the noun it describes.

Examples: "the bright light," "the grey file cabinet," "my messy desk," "the narrow hall."

In some cases, however, a descriptive adjective comes after a linking verb.

Examples: "The sunset is gorgeous." "Sugar is sweet." "I feel sick." "You look beautiful."
When an adjective follows a linking verb and gives information about the subject of the sentence,
it is called a predicate adjective.
Example: "The basement was dark and dingy." In this sentence, "basement" is the subject, and
"was" is the linking verb. "Dark" and "dingy" are predicate adjectives.

2. A LIMITING ADJECTIVE tells something about a noun by limiting it rather than describing its
qualities. There are three major classes of limiting adjectives:
(a) articles,
(b) numerals, and
(c) pronominal adjectives.

a. ARTICLES.
Limiting adjectives "a," "an," and "the" are known as "articles." "A" and "an" are called
"indefinite articles" because they limit a noun in an indefinite or general manner. An article must
come before the noun it modifies.
16. "A" is used before words beginning with a consonant sound.
Examples: "a broken record," "a laboratory."
The article "a" is pronounced like the first "a" in "away" and sounds like "uh." "
17. An" is used before words beginning with a vowel sound, such as "an apple," "an airplane," "an
elevator," or "an ice cream cone."
 "The" is called the "definite article" because it points to one definite person, place, or thing.
Example: "The man ran through the door."

When "the" comes before a word that begins with a vowel sound, it is pronounced with a long "e,"
as in "bee."
When "the" comes before a word beginning with a consonant sound, it is pronounced with a
neutral "e," sounding like "thuh."
18. b. NUMERALS.
Numerals are limiting adjectives that express number and order.
Numerals that express a number without reference to order are called "cardinals."
Examples of cardinals are as follows: "one," "five," "twenty-five," and "one hundred."
Numerals that indicate position in a numbered series are called "ordinals."
Examples of ordinals are as follows: "first," "second," "fifth," twenty-fifth," and "one hundredth."

Cardinals (Spelled Out) Ordinals (Spelled out)

1 one 1st first

2 two 2nd second

3 three 3rd third

4 four 4th fourth

5 five 5th fifth

6 six 6th sixth

7 seven 7th seventh

8 eight 8th eighth

9 nine 9th ninth

10 ten 10th tenth

11 eleven 11th eleventh

12 twelve 12th twelfth

13 thirteen 13th thirteenth

Cardinals (Spelled Out) Ordinals (Spelled out)

14 fourteen 14th fourteenth

20 twenty 20th twentieth

21 twenty-one 21st twenty-first

22 twenty-two 22nd twenty-second

30 thirty 30th thirtieth

40 forty 40th fortieth

100 one hundred 100th one hundredth

1,000 one thousand 1,000th one thousandth

10,000 ten thousand 10,000th ten thousandth

1,000,000 one million 1,000,000th one millionth

19. Fractions are pronounced by expressing the numerator (first number) as a cardinal and the
denominator (second number) as an ordinal. Thus, 1/3 is pronounced "one-third," and 1/4 as
"one-fourth." When a number is spelled out, a hyphen is always used between the two parts of a
fraction (one-sixth), or between the two parts of a compound number under 100. Example: thirty-
three.
20. c. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. A pronominal adjective is a pronoun that functions as an
adjective.
21. Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) can stand alone. Example: "What is that?"
When they stand alone, they are pronouns. However, when they are used before nouns, they
become pronominal adjectives. A pronominal adjective tells what items are being singled out and
indicates their distance from the speaker. Example: "Abram brought these things to God."
22. Interrogative pronouns (what, which, and whose) can also stand alone as pronouns. Example:
"Which do you prefer?" However, when interrogative pronouns are used before nouns, they
become pronominal adjectives. Example: "Which color do you prefer?"
23. Indefinite pronouns (all, another, any, both, each, either, few, many, most, neither, several, some)
can also stand alone as pronouns. Example: "Many went to war, but few returned." However,
when these pronouns are used before nouns, they become pronominal adjectives. Example: "You
will be the father of many nations."
 24. Possessive pronouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their) are used before nouns and are called
"pronominal adjectives" or "possessive adjectives." Example: "I will make your name famous."
25. When a pronoun stands alone, it functions as a pronoun. When it comes before a noun or a
pronoun to explain it, it functions as an adjective and is called a pronominal adjective.
26. The pronouns "who" and "none" and the personal pronouns "I," "you," "he," "she," "it," "we," and
"they" are never used as adjectives. Instead of "none," the adjective "no" is used to explain
nouns and pronouns. Examples: "no money," "no place," "no one."

I. Grammar 1.7: The Adjective (Continued)

THE ADJECTIVE (CONTINUED)

In the first six lessons, you have examined various kinds of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. You have
learned how to use them and how to change them from one form to another.

In this lesson, you will learn how to make comparisons by using adjectives, and how to spell adjectives in
their various forms. But first, let us look at some new words.

ADJECTIVES TO REMEMBER

1. "positive degree" The form of an adjective which tells us that a certain quality exists in a person,
place, or thing.
Example: "A bright light suddenly appeared in the sky." The adjective "bright" is in the positive
degree.

2. "comparative degree The form of an adjective which compares two objects, and says that one
has a higher or lower degree of a quality than the other.
Example: "This light is brighter than that one."

3. "superlative degree" The form of an adjective which compares three or more objects and says
that one has the highest or lowest degree of a quality.
Example: "Abel brought the best sheep to God as a gift." The adjective "best" is in the
superlative degree.

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "comparison" (noun) The variation of an adjective's form to express different degrees of a

quality, such as "good," "better," and "best."
Sentence: When Hagar became pregnant, she began to feel that she was better than Sarai."

2. "confirm" (verb) To make firm; to verify.

Sentence: "God confirmed his promises to Abraham."

3. "model" (noun) An example to be followed.

Sentence: "Abraham's trust in God is a model for everyone."

4. "rescue" (verb) To save from danger; to deliver.

Sentence: "God wants to rescue us from the power of evil."
 5. "reveal" (verb) To make known; to disclose.
Sentence: "God revealed that all families of the earth would be blessed through a descendant of
Abram."

6. "substitute" (verb) To replace; to put one person or thing in the place of another.
Sentence: "The life of a ram was substituted for the life of a human being."

7. "superlative" (noun) An adjective or adverb that expresses the greatest degree of a quality.
Example: "God's agreement with Abraham is one of the most important events in the Bible." The
adjective "most important" is a superlative.

8. "tug-of-war" (noun) An athletic contest between two teams at opposite ends of a rope, each
trying to pull the other across a dividing line. Any power struggle between two opposing parties.
Sentence: "Abraham's faith and his love for Isaac pulled against each other, like two forces in a
tug-of-war."

MAKING COMPARISONS WITH ADJECTIVES

Think about someone you know -- a special friend, an enemy, or a member of your family? Compare
yourself with him or her? Compare your looks, your height, your weight, your age, your intelligence, your
personalities, your actions, or anything.

In order to make the comparison, you will need to use adjectives ending in "er."
Examples: "taller," "shorter," "heavier," "thinner," "younger," "older," "smarter," "slower."
You can also use the words "more" and "less" to make the comparison.
Examples: "more handsome," "less beautiful," "more likeable," "less interesting," "more intelligent,"
"less sensitive," "more energetic."
Sentences: "I am two years older than she is." "She is more intelligent than I am."

Now, think about a group of people -- your family at home, your class at school, or your office staff. How
would you compare them in looks, height, weight, age, intelligence, personality, and character?

In order to compare more than two people, you will need to use adjectives ending in "est."
Examples: "tallest," "shortest," "heaviest," "thinnest," "youngest," "oldest," smartest."
You also can use the words "most," and "least" to make the comparison.
Examples: "most beautiful," "least handsome," "most likable," "least interesting," "most intelligent,"
"least sensitive," "most creative," "most honest," "least energetic."
Sentences: "He is the tallest member of the family." "She is the most creative artist on the staff."

DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Adjectives are classified in three degrees of comparison:

(1) positive,
(2) comparative, and
(3) superlative.

1. The positive degree simply tells that a quality exists in a person, place, or thing. No comparison
is made at all.
 Example: "Abraham was an old man when Isaac was born." The positive degree is the basic form
of an adjective.

2. The comparative degree compares two persons, places, or things and tells which one has a
greater or lesser degree of a quality than the other. The comparative degree is formed in either
of two ways: (a) by adding "er" to the positive form of a one syllable adjective, or (b) by using the
words "more" or "less" in front of the positive form of a multi-syllable adjective.
Examples: "Abraham was ten years older than Sarah."

3. The superlative degree compares more than two persons, places, or things and tells which one
has the greatest degree of a quality. The superlative degree is formed in two ways: (a) by adding
"est" to the positive form of an adjective, or (b) by using the words "most" or "least" in front of
the positive form of an adjective.
Examples: "Sarah was the oldest woman in history to give birth to a baby." "Abraham was one of
God's most faithful servants."

Positive Comparative Superlative

big bigger biggest

small smaller smallest

dangerous more dangerous most dangerous

expensive more expensive most expensive

fast faster fastest

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE FORMS

There are several old English forms that are irregular in their comparative forms.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad worse worst

far (measurable distance) farther farthest

far (measurable progress) further furthest

good better best

little less least

many more most

Some adjectives cannot be compared.

a) The articles "a," "an," and "the" cannot be compared.

b) Numerals cannot be compared.

c) An adjective denoting any absolute quality cannot be compared. Examples: "complete, "correct,"
"empty," "favorite," "final," "full," "perfect," "round," "square," "straight," "supreme."
It is incorrect to say that one circle is rounder than another. Rather, one circle is more nearly round than
another. Absolutes cannot be compared.

d) Adjectives that refer to unchangeable places or things cannot be compared.

Examples: "a brass door knob," "silk stockings," "a silver spoon," "a Spanish guitar." These things remain
the same and cannot be compared.

SPELLING RULES

When adjectives move from one degree of comparison to another, there is a change of spelling.
Confusion over such spelling changes can be avoided by remembering these rules:

1. When one-syllable adjectives end with a consonant preceded by a vowel, double the final
consonant before adding "er" or "est."
Examples: big - bigger -- biggest; fat - fatter -- fattest; sad - sadder -- saddest.

2. When one-syllable adjectives end with a silent "e," drop the silent "e" before adding "er" or
"est."
Examples: fine - finer -- finest; tame - tamer -- tamest.

3. When adjectives end with a "y" preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to "i" before adding
"er" or "est."
Examples: dry - drier -- driest; heavy - heavier -- heaviest; pretty - prettier -- prettiest; silly -sillier
-- silliest.

4. When adjectives have more than one syllable, their comparative or superlative degrees are
usually formed by prefixing "more," "less," "most," or "least" to their basic forms.
Examples: beautiful--more beautiful -- most beautiful;
careful -- more careful -- most careful
daring -- more daring -- most daring
loving -- more loving -- most loving
valuable -- more valuable -- most valuable.

Go over these rules again and again until you know them by heart. Take the time to learn them now, and
you will avoid a lot of confusion later.

I. Grammar 2.1: The Verb

THE VERB

In the first seven lessons of the WEI English Course, we examined various kinds of nouns, pronouns, and
adjectives. We learned how to use them and how to change them from one form to another.
In this lesson we begin our study of the verb. A verb is a word that expresses action, condition, or state
of being.
Sentences: "Doug ran a race this morning" (action).
"Now he is tired" (state of being).

VERBS TO REMEMBER

1. "action verb" A word that expresses mental or physical activity.

Example: "Abraham's servant took ten camels and loaded them with gifts." The words "took"
and "loaded" are action verbs.

2. "helping verb" A verb that helps the main verb express action, condition, or state of being.
Example: "God will surely listen to our prayers." "Will" is a helping verb.

3. "linking verb" A verb that links the subject to a word which tells what the subject is or seems to
be.
Example: "To God, everyone is important." "Is" is a linking verb.

4. "main verb" A verb that expresses the main thought or action in a verb phrase.
Example: "The Lord has led me to the right girl for my master's son." In this sentence, the word
"has" is the helping verb, and "led" is the main verb.

5. "transitive verb" A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning.

Example: "God answers prayer." In this sentence, the word "answers" is a transitive verb. The
object, "prayer," is necessary to complete the meaning of "answers."

6. "intransitive verb" A verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning.
Example: "Isaac's mother died." "Died" is an intransitive verb.

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "bracelet" (noun) A band or chain worn as an ornament around the arm or wrist.
Example: "Abraham's servant gave Rebekah a gold ring and two gold arm bracelets."

2. "heir" (noun) Anyone who receives the property, office, or title of a person who dies.
Example: "Isaac was the only male heir in Abraham's family." "Heir" is pronounced like "air." The
"h" is silent.

3. "loyal" (adjective) Faithful and true.

Example: "God was kind and loyal to Abraham."

4. "pregnancy" (noun) The state or condition of carrying a child in the body.

Example: "Rebekah's pregnancy was a special blessing from God."

5. "trough" (noun) A long, narrow container holding food or water for animals.
Example: "Rebekah poured all the water from her jar into the drinking trough." "Trough" rhymes
with "cough." The "gh" is pronounced like "f."

6. "salvation" (noun) Deliverance from danger, evil, or destruction.

Example: "God's plan of salvation unfolds in this lesson."

WHAT IS A VERB?
A verb is a word that expresses action, condition, or state of being. It tells what is happening, what is,
or what seems to be.
"Jane walked home" (action).
"She was tired" (condition).
"Jane's husband looked worried" (state of being).

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and every predicate must have a verb. The verb is
the heart of the predicate.
Example: "Isaac and Ishmael buried Abraham in the Cave of Machpelah." In this sentence, "Isaac" and
"Ishmael" are the subjects, and "buried Abraham" is the predicate. The verb "buried," tells us what Isaac
and Ishmael did with Abraham.

ACTION VERBS

An action verb is a verb that expresses physical or mental activity. Examples of action verbs are,
"ask,"
"bring,"
"climb,"
"dig,"
"eat,"
"go,"
"hurl,"
"jog,"
"kneel,"
"make,"
"push,"
"rake,"
"stand,"
"throw,"
"work."

Can you write down ten important things you did after you awoke from sleep and got out of bed this
morning?
For example, let me describe what I did: "I put on my robe and slippers, turned on the heater,
and went to the kitchen to prepare breakfast. There, I filled the tea kettle with water and put it on the
stove to heat. I poured a bowl of bran flakes, brewed a cup of coffee, and sat down to eat. While eating,
I thought about my schedule for the day. After breakfast, I shaved, showered, dressed, and drove to
work." The action verbs in this paragraph have been highlighted.

LINKING VERBS

A linking verb expresses condition or state of being. It describes what is or what seems to be. It links the
subject of a sentence to a word that describes the subject.
Example: "God is love." In this sentence, "God" is the subject, "love" is the word that describes God, and
"is" is the linking verb that joins the two together.
The most common linking verb is the verb
"be" and its various forms:
"am,"
"are,"
"is,"
"was," and
"were."
Example: "Rebekah was very beautiful." In this sentence, "Rebekah" is the subject, "beautiful" is the
word that describes her, and "was" is the linking verb.

Other linking verbs are

"act,"
"appear,"
"become,"
"feel,"
"grow,"
"look,"
"remain,"
"seem,"
"smell,"
"sound,"
"stand,"
"stay," and
"taste."
Examples:
"Act enthusiastic and you'll feel enthusiastic!"
"On the outside he looks calm, but on the inside he is a nervous wreck."
"It smells like apple pie and it tastes like apple pie, but it is made of peanuts."

Some verbs may be used as linking AND as action verbs.

Examples:
"I feel sick" (linking verb). "I feel the rain on my face" (action verb).
"Some boys grow tall" (linking verb). "Some farmers grow corn" (action verb).

TRANSITIVE VERBS

A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to complete its meaning.

Example: "Joe hit the ball." In this sentence, "Joe" is the subject, "hit" is the verb, and "ball" is the object
that tells us what Joe hit. The verb "hit" is transitive because it requires an object to complete its
meaning.

The action expressed in a transitive verb is thought of as "passing over" from the subject to an object
outside the subject.
Example: "That man studies English." The verb "studies" is transitive because its meaning is completed
by the object "English." If we say, "That man studies all the time," the verb "studies" is still transitive
because some word like "English," "grammar," or "math" must be understood to complete its meaning.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning. The action
expressed by an intransitive verb does not "pass over" from the subject to an object. It affects only the
subject.
Examples:
Flowers bloom.
Rain falls.
The grass grows.
The wind blows.
Crickets chirp.

What do dogs do?

Dogs bark.
Dogs sleep.
Dogs walk, trot, and run.
Dogs fight and dogs die.
We have just used seven intransitive verbs to describe what dogs do.

Some verbs may be either transitive or intransitive, depending on how they are used.
Examples:
"It breaks (transitive verb) my heart (object)." "Glass breaks (intransitive verb) easily."
"He returned (transitive verb) the books (object)." "He returned (intransitive verb) from the war."

MAIN VERBS

The main verb is the verb which expresses the main thought or action in a verb phrase (a group of verbs
used together). It tells what happens, what is, or what seems to be.
Examples:
"God is listening to our prayers." In this sentence, "is listening" is a verb phrase and "listening" is the
main verb. The main verb of a verb phrase often ends in "ing."

HELPING VERBS

A helping verb is a verb that helps the main verb tell when or how something happens.
Example: "God is listening to our prayers. As was noted above, "is listening" is a verb phrase and
"listening" is the main verb. "Is" is the helping verb.

The most common helping verb is the verb "be" or one of its forms:
"am,"
"are,"
"is,"
"was," and
"were."
Other helping verbs are,
"can,"
"do,"
"have,"
"may,"
"must,"
"shall," and
"will."

A helping verb must always agree with the subject of the sentence in number, person, and tense. (We
will learn more about these verb properties in Lesson Nine.) Notice in the chart below that the helping
verbs "be," "have," and "do" have more than one form in the singular.

PRESENT TENSE SINGULAR

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

I you he/she/it

am are is

do do does

have have has

PRESENT TENSE PLURAL

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

we you they

are are are

do do do

have have have

PAST TENSE SINGULAR

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

I you he/she/it

was were was

PAST TENSE PLURAL

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

we you they
1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

were were were

I. Grammar 2.2: Properties of Verbs

PROPERTIES OF VERBS

In Lesson Eight we listed several types of verbs. In this lesson, we will examine five properties of verbs:
(1) voice,
(2) mood,
(3) person,
(4) number, and
(5) tense.

Before we get into the lesson, let us learn some new words.

VERBS TO REMEMBER

1. "bless" (verb) ---- To ask God to be especially kind and generous to someone.
Example: "Isaac said to his son Esau, 'I will bless you before I die.'"

2. "deceive" (verb) ---- To mislead someone by making him or her believe something that is not
true.
Example: "Jacob deceived members of his own family."

3. "despair" (verb) ---- To give up hope.

Example: "If you have faults, don't despair. God is not finished with you."

4. "predict" (verb) ---- To tell in advance; to foretell a future event.

Example: "God predicted that a descendant of Eve would crush Satan's head."

OTHER WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "birthright" (noun) ---- The rights that a person has because of being born into a family or
nation. In the ancient world, the firstborn son had a right to be the head of the family when his
father died and to receive twice as much inheritance as any other son.
Example: "Jacob said to his brother Esau, 'You must sell me your birthright today.'"

2. "disappointment" (noun) Something that fails to satisfy a person's hopes, desires, and
expectations.
Example: "Jacob's disappointments made him a better man."

3. "lentil" (noun) ---- The round, flat, edible seed of a plant which is a member of the pea family. It
is often referred to as a bean.
Example: "Jacob was boiling a pot of lentils when Esau came home from hunting."
 4. "potter" (noun) ---- A person who makes clay pots and dishes.
Example: "God is the potter and we are the clay."

5. "tragedy" (noun) ---- A disaster; a very sad and upsetting event.

Example: "God worked through every tragedy to change Jacob into a better person."

PROPERTIES OF VERBS

Verbs have five qualities known as "properties:"

(1) voice,
(2) mood,
(3) number,
(4) person, and
(5) tense.

VOICE

In English, voice is the arrangement of words in a sentence to show the relation between the subject
and the action expressed by the verb.
Transitive verbs have two voices:
(a) active, and
(b) passive.

If the subject of a sentence acts upon an object, the verb is in the active voice.
Example: "John kicked the ball." In this sentence, "John" is the subject, "kicked" is the verb, and "ball" is
the object. The verb "kicked" is in the active voice because the subject (John) acted upon the object
(ball).

If the subject of a sentence receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice.
Example: "Mary is loved by John." In this sentence, the verb "loved" is in the passive voice because the
subject is being acted upon.

In English, the passive voice is formed by placing some form of the verb "be" ("is," "was," etc.) in front
of the main verb of a verb phrase. The main verb in the passive voice takes on the past participle form
(the verb + "ed" or "en"). We will learn about participles later.

Notice that the direct object of a verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive voice.
Active voice: "Tina wrote a letter."
Passive voice: "A letter was written by Tina."

Active voice: "Amy solved the puzzle."

Passive voice: "The puzzle was solved by Amy."

The active voice adds life and interest to a sentence. It provides power, energy, and punch. It paints vivid
pictures in the mind.
Example: "Smoke billowed from the window. A woman inside the building screamed for help.
Firefighters rushed up the stairs and smashed through the door with their axes." Active verbs give life
and strength to this scene. Active verbs are a key to clear and powerful writing. Except for formal and
scientific writing, use the active voice. Sentences with passive verbs tend to be weak and awkward.
MOOD

Mood is the manner in which action or state of being is expressed by a verb. In English, there are three
moods:
(a) indicative,
(b) subjunctive, and
(c) imperative.

a. The indicative mood indicates that the action expressed by the verb is factual. A verb that states a
fact or asks for factual information is in the indicative mood.
Examples: "Glenn drives a truck." "Does Glenn drive a truck?" The verbs in these sentences are in the
indicative mood.

b. The subjunctive mood suggests that the action expressed by the verb is imagined and not factual.
Examples: "If I were you, I would tell the truth." ("Were" is used with the subjunctive, not "was.")
"If I live to be a hundred, I will not forget you." Subjunctive (subordinate) clauses are usually introduced
by "if," but may also be introduced by "except," "lest," "though," and "unless." These words are
called "signs" of the subjunctive.

c. The imperative mood expresses a command, a request, or a direction.

Examples: "Let me have some of those red beans."
"Promise me that you will give your share to me."
"Bring it to me."
"Turn left at the next corner."
Notice that the subject is missing in each of these sentences. That is a sign of the imperative
mood. The subject "you" is understood since the imperative mood is only used when addressing
someone directly.

PERSON AND NUMBER

In English, a verb must agree with the subject in person and number.
If the subject of the sentence is doing the speaking and is singular in number, the verb is "first person
singular."
Example: "If I die, all my father's wealth will not help me." The verb "die" is first person singular because
the subject "I" is first person singular.

If the subject of the sentence is singular and is being spoken to, the verb is "second person singular."
Example: "You must sell me your rights as the firstborn son today." The verb "sell" receives its second
person singular status from the pronoun "you," the subject of the sentence.

If the subject is singular and is being talked about, the verb is "third person singular."
Example: "Esau hated Jacob and decided to kill him." The verbs "hated" and "decided" are third person
singular because "Esau" is third person singular.
In modern English, only third person singular verbs change form to indicate person and number. All other
regular verbs remain the same regardless of person and number. Examples: "I go." "You go." "We go."
"They go." But the verb changes form in the third person singular: "He/she/it goes."

The irregular verb "be," however, has several forms. Notice in the chart below that "be" takes different
forms to indicate person, number, and tense. Memorize these forms of the verb "be." They are very
important.

PRESENT TENSE SINGULAR

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

I you he/she/it

am are is

do do does

have have has

PRESENT TENSE PLURAL

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

we you they

are are are

do do do

have have have

PAST TENSE SINGULAR

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

I you he/she/it

was were was

PAST TENSE PLURAL

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

we you they

were were were

1st Per 2nd Per 3rd Per

TENSE

Tense is a property of verbs that indicates the time of the action or state of being expressed by a verb.
There are three divisions of time:
(1) past,
(2) present, and
(3) future.

Each of these divisions has two tenses:

(a) simple, and
(b) perfect.

Altogether, there are six basic tenses (plus the continuous action form of each of the six tenses
bringing the total number of tenses to twelve. We will discuss these continuous, progressive verb
tenses in Lesson 3.)

1. The simple present tense denotes action or state of being that is occurring at the present time.
Examples:
"Your voice sounds like Jacob's voice, but your arms are hairy like the arms of Esau."
"God points ahead to a Savior."
The verbs "sounds," "are," and "points" are in the present tense.

2. The simple past tense denotes action that happened in the past.
Examples:
"Rebekah prayed to the Lord."
"Rebekah gave birth to twin boys."
"Isaac loved Esau, but Rebekah loved Jacob."
The verbs "prayed," "gave," and "loved" are past tense verbs.

3. The simple future tense denotes action that will take place in the future. There is actually no future
tense verb form in English. The future tense is formed by placing the helping verb "will" before the
present tense plural form.
Example: "I will bless you before I die." The verb phrase "will bless" is in the future tense.

4. The present perfect tense denotes action that began at some point in the past and has continued to
the present.
Examples:
"I have done the things you told me."
"You have tricked me."
"God has predicted that Someone would come to defeat Satan and to bless the world."
The verb phrases "have done," "have tricked," and "has predicted" are in the present perfect
tense. Some form of "have" is used with perfect tenses.
5. The past perfect tense expresses action completed in the past before some other past event.
Example: "Jacob had worked for Laban twenty years when he left Haran and returned home." The verb
phrase "had worked" is in the past perfect tense.

6. The future perfect tense denotes action that will be completed in the future before some other
future event.
Example: "On June 29th, I will have worked here two full years." The verb phrase "will have worked" is in
the future perfect tense.

I. Grammar 2.3: Verb Forms

VERB FORMS

In Lessons Eight and Nine, we examined verbs and their properties. In this lesson we will learn about the
four basic verb forms. First, let us learn some new words.

WORDS TO REMEMBER

1. "application" (noun) ---- The art of putting something to use.

Example: ""Each Bible story is followed by several practical applications."

2. "bitter" (adjective) ---- Filled with resentment and hatred.

Example: "Joseph could have become very bitter."

3. "chariot" (noun) A light, two-wheeled, horse-drawn cart used in the ancient world for war,
racing, hunting, and parades. Example: "Joseph prepared his chariot and went out to meet his
father."

4. "confused" (adjective) --- Mentally mixed up; bewildered; puzzled. Example: "Joseph's brothers
were confused."

5. "faithful" (adjective) ---- True, devoted, and loyal. Example: "Joseph was faithful to God in every
situation."

6. "governor" (noun) ---- A person who has been made ruler over a nation, province, or state.
Example: "Joseph was made governor over the land of Egypt.""interpret" (verb) ---- To explain or
to set forth the meaning. Example: "Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's dreams."

7. "Pharaoh" (noun) ---- The title given to the king of Egypt. Example: "Potiphar was the captain
of Pharaoh's guard." "sheaf" (noun). ---- A bundle of cut grain. Example: "Joseph dreamed that
his brothers' bundles of wheat bowed down to his sheaf.

BASIC VERB FORMS

A verb changes form as it moves from one tense to another.

Examples: "He worked yesterday.
He always works hard.
He is working today.
He will work tomorrow also."
In these sentences, the verb "work" appears in four different forms to indicate past, present, and future
activity.

There are four basic verb forms that are used to indicate tense in verbs:
(1) the base form (present tense plural),
(2) past tense,
(3) present participle, and
(4) past participle.

PRESENT TENSE FORMS

Present tense verb forms show that the action or state of being expressed by a verb is happening now
and is ongoing.
Examples: "Here comes Joseph, the one who dreams."
"My master trusts me."
"God rewards those who are faithful."
Each of these present tense verbs shows action that is going on in the present.

Verbs in the present tense usually have a singular and a plural form.

The present tense singular form of a verb ends with "s." Its subject is a singular noun or a third person
singular pronoun (he/she/it). Examples are as follows:

Subject Present Tense Singular Verb Form

A postman walks

A dog barks

A cat runs

He/She/It laughs

The present tense plural form of a verb does not end with "s." Its subject is a plural noun or the
pronoun "I," "you," "we," or "they." The present tense plural form is the base form of a verb.

Subject Present Tense Plural Verb Form

Postmen walk

Dogs bark

Cats run

I/You/We/They laugh

When the subject of a sentence is a singular indefinite pronoun (another, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, somebody, etc.), the verb form must also be
singular.
Example: "Anyone who hears these words and does them is wise." The indefinite pronoun "anyone" is
singular; therefore, the verbs are also singular in form.

When the subject of a sentence is a plural indefinite pronoun (both, few, many, several), the verb form
must also be plural.
Example: "Many are called but few are chosen." "Many," and "few" are plural; therefore, the verb
phrases "are called," and "are chosen" must also be plural in form.

PAST TENSE FORMS

Past tense verb forms show that the action or state of being expressed by a verb took place in the
past.

For regular verbs, the past tense form is created by adding "d" or "ed" to the base form of the verb.
Example: "Our dogs chase cats." "Yesterday, they chased three cats out of the yard."

Other verbs, however, are made past tense by changing letters inside the verb, not by adding "d" or
"ed" to the base form. These verbs are called "irregular verbs."
Examples: "Our telephones ring constantly." "Yesterday, they rang at least 100 times." The past tense
form of the verb "ring" is "rang," not "ringed." "Ring" is an irregular verb.

Regular Present Verbs Regular Past Verbs

add added

bake baked

chase chased

jog jogged

kill killed

Irregular Present Verbs Irregular Past Verbs

eat ate

begin began

choose chose

drive drove

give gave

PRESENT PARTICIPLE FORM

The present participle verb form is made up of the base form of a verb + "ing," and always follows the
helping verb "be" or one of its forms ("am," "are," "is," "was," "were").
Example: "Their camels were carrying many different spices and riches."

When a present tense form of "be" ("is," "am," "are") is used with a present participle form, the verb
phrase tells of continuing action in the present.
Example: "God is blessing us."

When a past tense form ("was" or "were") is used with a present participle form, the verb phrase tells
of continuing action in the past.
Example: "We were working in the field."

PAST PARTICIPLE FORM

The past participle verb form is made up of the base form of a verb + "d," "ed," or "en," and always
follows the helping verb "have" or one of its forms ("has" or "had").
Example: "Maybe some wild animal has killed him."

When "have" or "has" is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing
action in the present perfect tense.
Example: "God has shown you what will happen."

When "had" is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the
past perfect tense.
Example: "The wine server remembered that Joseph had interpreted a dream for him."

When "will have" is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in
the future perfect tense.
Example: "By the time you finish this course, you will have learned many things about English and about
God."

REGULAR VERBS

Some verbs follow the same pattern in moving from one verb form to another. These are called
"regular verbs." Notice in the following chart how regular verbs are formed:

Present Past Past Participle Present Participle

ask asked (have) asked (am) asking

bake baked (have) baked (am) baking

paint painted (have) painted (am) painting

start started (have) started (am) starting

IRREGULAR VERBS
Other verbs do not follow the same pattern in moving from one form to another. These are called
"irregular verbs." There are about 200 irregular English verbs. Since there are no fixed rules for irregular
verbs, you must either memorize them or check your dictionary regularly. A few of the most common
irregular verbs are listed below:

Present Past Past Participle Present Participle

begin began (have) begun (am) beginning

break broke (have) broken (am) breaking

choose chose (have) chosen (am) choosing

do did (have) done (am) doing

eat ate (have) eaten (am) eating

fall fell (have) fallen (am) falling

fly flew (have) flown (am) flying

get got (have) gotten (am) getting

go went (have) gone (am) going

read (reed) read (red) (have) read (red) (am) reading (reeding)

ride rode (have) ridden (am) riding

see saw (have) seen (am) seeing

sing sang (have) sung (am) singing

speak spoke (have) spoken (am) speaking

take took (have) taken (am) taking

throw threw (have) thrown (am) throwing

write wrote (have) written (am) writing

VERB TENSES

In Lesson 2, we learned that English has six basic verb tenses (present, past, future, present perfect, past
perfect, and future perfect). In the charts below, please notice that each of the six basic tenses has a
progressive or continuous action form.
1. Present tense

Person Singular Plural

1st I walk. We walk. (base form)

2nd You walk. You walk.

3rd He/She/It walks They walk.

Present Progressive ("am/is/are" + present participle): I am walking.

2. Past tense (base form + "d" or "ed")

Person Singular Plural

1st I walked. We walked.

2nd You walked. You walked.

3rd He/She/It walked. They walked.

Past Progressive ("was/were" + present participle): I was walking.

3. Future Tense ("will" or "shall" + base form)

Person Singular Plural

1st I will (shall) walk. We will (shall) walk.

2nd You will walk. You will walk.

3rd He/She/It will walk. They will walk.

Future Progressive ("will be/shall be" + present participle): I shall be walking.

4. Present Perfect Tense ("have" or "has" + past participle)

Person Singluar Plural

1st I have walked. We have walked.

2nd You have walked. You have walked.

3rd He/She/It has walked They have walked.

Present Perfect Progressive ("have been/has been" + present participle): I have been walking.
5. Past Perfect Tense ("had" + past participle)

Person Singular Plural

1st I had walked. We had walked.

2nd You had walked. You had walked.

3rd He/She/It had walked. They had walked.

Past Perfect Progressive ("had been" + present participle): I had been walking.

6. Future Perfect Tense ("will have" or "shall have" + past participle)

Person Singular Plural

1st I will (shall) have walked. We will (shall) have walked.

2nd You will have walked. You will have walked.

3rd He/She/It will have walked. They will have walked.

Future Perfect Progressive ("will have been" + present participle): I will have been walking.