Shafts

1.1 Definition

Shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the resultant
torque (or twisting moment) set up within the shaft which permits the power to be
transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft. In order to transfer the power
from one shaft to another the various members such as pulleys, gears, etc., are mounted
on it. These members along with the forces exerted upon them cause the shafts to bend.
In other words a shaft is used to transmit torque and bending moment.

1.2 Materials

The material used for the ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required
an alloy steel such as Nickel, Nickel chromium or chrome-vanadium steel is used. Shafts
are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold drawing or turning and
grinding.

1.3 Types

There are two important types of shafts:

a) Transmission shafts: These shafts transmit power between the source and the
machine absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, overhead shafts and all
factory shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts they are subjected to
bending in addition to twisting.
b) Machine shafts: These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The
crankshaft is an example of machine shaft.

1.4 Standard sizes of transmission shafts

Size in mm steps
25 - 60 5
 60 - 110 10
110 - 140 15
140 - 500 20
The standard lengths of the shafts are 5m, 6m and 7m.

1.5 Stresses in shafts

The following stresses are induced in the shafts:

a) The stress due to transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).
b) Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine
elements like gears, pulleys, etc., as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.
c) Stress due to combined torsional and bending loads.

1.6 Maximum permissible working stresses for transmission shafts

The maximum permissible working stresses in tension or compression may be taken as:
a) 112 N/mm2 (1120 kgf/cm2) for shafts without allowance for keyways.
b) 84 N/mm2 (840 kgf/cm2) for shafts with allowance for keyways.
For shafts purchased under definite physical specifications, the permissible tensile
stress may be taken as 60% of the elastic limit in tension by not more than 36% of the
ultimate tensile strength.
The maximum permissible shear stress may be taken as
a) 56 N/mm2 (560 kgf/cm2) for shafts without allowance for keyways.
b) 42 N/mm2 (420 kgf/cm2) shafts with allowance for keyways.
For shafts purchased under definite physical specifications, the permissible shear stress
may be taken as 30% of the elastic limit in tension by not more than 18% of the ultimate
tensile strength.

1.7 Design of shafts

The shafts may be designed in the basis of

a) Strength
b) Rigidity and stiffness.
In designing shafts on the basis of strength the following cases are normally considered.

1.7.1 Shafts subjected to twisting moment only:

When the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment (torque) only then the diameter of the
shaft may be obtained by using torsion equation
MT  s
 (i)
J r
M T - Twisting moment acting upon the shaft,
J - Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation
 s - Torsional shear stress, and
r - Distance from neutral axis to the outermost fibre = d/2, where d is the
diameter of the shaft.
Polar moment of the round shaft

J d4
32
The equation (i) may be written as
MT s 
 or M T   s  d 3 (ii)
 d 16
d4
32 2
From this equation the diameter of the round solid shaft can be determined.
For the hollow shaft the moment of inertia is

J

32
d  0
4
 d i  ,
4

where
d 0 and d i - outside and inside diameters of the shaft, and r  d 0 / 2 .

Substituting these values in equation (i), we have

MT s  d 0 4  d i 4 

 or M T    s   (iii)

32
d 0
4
 d i 
4
 d0
2
16  d0 

Let k = Ratio of inside diameter to the outside diameter of the shaft d i / d 0 .

Now the equation (iii) may be written as

d 0 4   
4
 d 
MT   s  1   i  
    s d 0 3 1  k 4  (iv)
16 d0   d 0   16
From the equation (iii) and (iv) the outside and inside diameters of the hollow shaft
may be determined.

Things to note:

a) The hollow shafts are usually used in marine works. These shafts are stronger
per kg of material and they may be forged in a mandrel, thus making material
more homogeneous than should be for a solid shaft. When a hollow shaft is to be
made equal in strength to a solid shaft the twisting moment of both the shaft
must be the same. In other words, for the same material of both the shafts,

 d 0 4  d i 4  
MT   S     s  d
3

16  d0  16
Therefore
d 0 4  d i 4
d0
 
 d 3 or d 0  1  k 4  d 3
3

b) The twisting moment may be obtained by the following relation:

Power transmitted by the shaft,

2NM T P  60
P or M T  , where
60 2N
M T - Twisting moment in Nm and
N - Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.

c) In case of belt drive the twisting moment is given by

M T  T1  T2 R , where
T1 and T2 - Tensions on the tight side and slack side of the belt
respectively and
R - Radius of the pulley.

1.7.2 Shafts subjected to Bending moment only

When the shaft is subjected to bending moment only then the maximum stress (tensile
and compressive) is given by bending equation. It is well known that
 MB b
 , (v)
I y
where
MB - Bending moment
I - Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the axis of
rotation,
s - Bending stress and

y - Distance from the neutral axis to the outer-most fibre.

For a round shaft moment of inertia is given by
 d
I  d 4 and y 
64 2
Substituting these values in equation (v), we have
MB b 
 or M B   b  d 3
 d 32
d4
64 2
From this equation the diameter of the solid shaft may be obtained. We also know that
for a hollow shaft, the moment of inertia

I

64
d  0
4
 d i  
4
 
64
d 0 4 1  k 4 
k  di / d0

d0
y
2
Again substituting these values in the equation (v), we have
b 

MB
 or M B 
3

  b d 0  1  k 4 
64
d 0  4
1  k  4 d0 32
2
From the above equation the outside diameter of the shaft can be calculated. Axles are
designed on the basis of the bending moment only in the similar way as above.

1.7.3 Shafts subjected to combined Twisting moment and Bending moment

When the shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment, then
the shaft must be designed on the basis of the two moments simultaneously. Various
theories have been suggested to account for the elastic failure of the materials when
they are subjected to various types of combined stresses. The following two theories are
important from the subject point of view:
a) Maximum shear stress theory or Guest’s theory. It is used for ductile materials
such as mild steel
b) Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle
materials such as cast iron.
Let
 s - Shear stress induced due to twisting moment, and
 b - Bending stress (tensile and compression) induced due to bending moment.
According to maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear stress in the shaft

 s (max) 
1
 b 2  4 s 2
2
Substituting the values of  s and  b from above, we have

M 
2 2
1  32M B   16M T  16
 s (max)     4   3
2
 M T2
2  d   d  d
3 3 B

or

  s max   d 3  M B2  M T2
16

The expression M B2  M T2 is known as equivalent twisting moment is denoted by M TE .

The equivalent twisting moment may be defined as that twisting moment, which when
acting alone produced the same shear stress as the actual twisting moment. By limiting
the maximum shear stress equal to the allowable shear stress  s  for the material the

equation (v) may be written as


M TE  M B2  M T2   s  d 3
16
From the above equation the diameter of the shaft may be evaluated.
According to maximum normal stress theory, the maximum normal stress in the shaft
1
 b max    b 
1
 b 2  4 s 2
2 2
2 2
1 32M 1  32M B   16M T 
      4 
2 d 3
2  d 
3
 d 
3
 
32
d 3
1
 2 
 2 M B  M B  M T  or
2


32
  b max   d 3 
1
2
M B  M B2  M T2 
The expression
1
2
 
M B  M B2  M T2 is known as the equivalent bending moment and is

defined by M BE . The equivalent bending moment may be defined as that moment which
when acting alone produces the same tensile or compressive stress as the actual
bending moment. By limiting maximum normal stress equal to allowable bending
stress  b  , then the above equation may be written as

1 
M BE  ( M B  M B2  M T2 )   b  d
2 32
From this equation, diameter of the shaft may be evaluated.

Note:
a) In case of a hollow shaft

M TE  M B2  M T2 
16
3

  s d 0  1  k 4 
and

M BE 
1
2
( M B  M B2  M T2 ) 
32
  b d 0  1  k 4
3
 
b) It is suggested that the diameter of the shaft may be obtained by using both the
theories and the larger of the two values is adopted.
Lecture 2: Shafts

1.7.4 Shafts subjected to fluctuating loads

In actual practice the shafts are subjected to fluctuating torque and bending moments.
In order to design such shafts like line shafts and counter shafts, the combined shock
and fatigue factors must be taken into account for the calculated twisting moment ( M T )

and bending moment ( M B ). Thus, the shaft subjected to combined bending and torsion,
the equivalent twisting moment

TTE  K m  M B 2  K t  M T 2
and the equivalent bending moment
1
M BE  Km  M B  K m  M B 2  K t  M T 2 
2  
Where
K m - Combined shock and fatigue factor for bending, and

K t - Combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion

Nature of load Km Kt

1. Stationary shafts
(a) Gradually applied load 1.0 1.0
(b) suddenly applied load 1.5 – 2.0 1.5 – 2.0
2. Rotating shafts
(a) Gradually applied load 1.5 1.5
(b) suddenly applied load with minor shock 1.5 – 2.0 1.5 – 2.0
(c) suddenly applied load with major shock 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 – 3.0

1.7.5 Shafts subjected to axial load in addition to combined torsion and bending
loads

When the shaft is subjected to an axial load ( F ) in addition to torsion and bending
loads as in propeller shafts and shafts for driving worm gears, then the stress due to
axial load must be added to the bending stress (  b ). We know that bending equation is
 MB b M y M  d / 2 32M B
 or  b  B  B 
I y I  d 3
d 4

64
And stress due to axial load
F 4F
  (for round and solid shafts)
 d 2
d2
4
F 4F
 
  
(for hollow shafts)

4
d  0
2
 d i 
2  d 0 2  d i 2

F
 ( k  di / d0 )
 d 0  1  k 2
2
 
Resultant stress (tensile and compressive) for solid shafts,
32M B 4 F 32  Fd 
R   2  3 MB  
d 3
d d  8 
32M R Fd
 (Substituting M R  M B  ).
d 3
8
In case of a hollow shaft, the resultant stress,
32M B 4F
R  
 d 0  1  k 3 4
  d 0 2 1  k 2 


32 

Fd 0 1  k 2  32M R 
 B  (Substituting for hollow
 d 0  1  k   
M
  d 0  1  k
3 4 3 4
 8

Fd 0 1  k 4 
shaft M R  M B  )
8
In case of long shafts (slander shafts) subjected to compressive loads, a factor known as
column factor (  ) must be introduced to take the column effect into account.
Therefore, stress due to the compressive load
  4F
c  (for round solid shafts)
d 2
  4F
c  (for hollow shafts)
 d 0 1  k 2 
The value of the column factor (  ) for compressive loads may be obtained from the
following relation
1
Column factor,  
1  0.0044L / K 
This expression is used when the slenderness ratio L / K  is less than 115. When the
slenderness ratio is more than 115 then the value of the column factor may be obtained
from the following equation:
f y L / K 
Column factor 
C 2 E
L - Length of the shaft between the bearings
K - Least radius of gyration
f y - Compressive yield point stress of shaft material and

C - Coefficient in Euler’s formula depending upon the end condition

The following are the different values of C depending upon end conditions
C = 1, for hinged ends
= 2.25, for fixed ends
= 1.6, for ends that are partly restrained as in bearings.

1.8 Design of the shaft on the basis of rigidity

Sometimes the shafts are to be designed on the basis of rigidity. There are two types of
rigidity to be considered

1.8.1 Torsional rigidity:

The torsional rigidity is important in the case of camshaft of an internal combustion

engine when the timing of the valves would be affected. The permissible amount of
twist should not exceed 0.250 per metre length of such shafts. For line shafts or
transmission shafts, deflections 2.50 to 30 per metre length may be used as limiting
value. The widely used deflection for the shaft is limited to 10 in a length equal to twenty
times the diameter of the shaft.

The torsional deflection may be obtained by using the torsion equation

M T G M L
 or   T
J L GJ
Where
 - Torsional deflection or degree of twist in radians
 M T - Twisting moment or torque on the shaft
J - Polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the axis of rotation
G - Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material, and
L - Length of the shaft

1.8.2 Lateral rigidity

It is important in case of transmission shafting and shafts running at high speed, where
small lateral deflection would cause huge out-of-balance forces. The lateral rigidity is
also important for maintaining proper bearing clearances and for correct gear teeth
alignment. If the shaft is uniform cross-section, then the lateral deflection of a shaft may
be obtained by using the deflection formulae as in strength of materials. But when the
shaft is of variable cross-sectional area, then the lateral deflection may be determined
from the fundamental equation for the elastic curve of a beam, i.e.
d2y MB

dx 2 EI

1.9 Exercises

A line shaft rotating at 200 rpm is to transmit 25 hp. The shaft may be assumed to be
made of mild steel with allowable shear stress of 420 kgf/cm2. Determine the diameter
of the shaft, neglecting the bending moment on the shaft.(d=47.7mm)
A shaft is transmitting 1 MW at 240 rpm. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the
maximum torque transmitted exceeds mean torque by 20%. Take the maximum
allowable shear stress as 60 N/mm2. (d=159.4mm).

1.10 Assignment

A mild steel shaft transmits 23 kW at 200 rpm. It carries a central load of 900 N and is
simply supported between the bearings 2.5 metres apart. Determine the size of the shaft
if the allowable shear stress is 42 N/mm2 and the maximum tensile or compressive
stress is not to exceed 56 N/mm2. What size of the shaft will be required if it is subjected
to gradually applied load?
QN1. A line shaft rotating at 200 r.p.m. is to transmit 20 kW. The shaft may be assumed to be
made of mild steel with an allowable shear stress of 42 MPa. Determine the diameter of the shaft,
neglecting the bending moment on the shaft.
QN 2. A solid shaft is transmitting 1 MW at 240 r.p.m. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the
maximum torque transmitted exceeds the mean torque by 20%. Take the maximum allowable
shear stress as 60 MPa.
QN 3, Find the diameter of a solid steel shaft to transmit 20 kW at 200 r.p.m. The ultimate shear
stress for the steel may be taken as 360 MPa and a factor of safety as 8. If a hollow shaft is to be
used in place of the solid shaft, find the inside and outside diameter when the ratio of inside to
outside diameters is 0.5.
QN 4. A pair of wheels of a railway wagon carries a load of 50 kN on each axle box, acting at a
distance of 100 mm outside the wheel base. The gauge of the rails is 1.4 m. Find the diameter of
the axle between the wheels, if the stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
QN 5. A shaft made of mild steel is required to transmit 100 kW at 300 r.p.m. The supported length
of the shaft is 3 metres. It carries two pulleys each weighing 1500 N supported at a distance of 1
metre from the ends respectively. Assuming the safe value of stress, determine the
diameter of the shaft.