Applied Physics

Unit 2: Semiconductor Physics

Dr. G. Patrick
 Unit 2: Semiconductor Physics
• Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,
Estimation of carrier concentration,
Dependence of Fermi level on carrier
concentration and variation with temperature,
Carrier transport: diffusion and drift, Hall
Effect, p-n junction diode: I-V Characteristics,
Zener diode: I-V Characteristics, Bipolar
Junction Transistor (BJT): Construction and
principle of operation (n-p-n and p-n-p) in
common base configuration.
Conductors, Semiconductors and
Insulators
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials having electrical
conductivity greater than that of insulators
but less than that of conductors.
• Semiconductors may be classified as
Intrinsic semiconductor or
Extrinsic semiconductor
 Intrinsic semiconductor
• Chemically pure
semiconductors are called
as intrinsic
semiconductors.
• Germanium and silicon
are intrinsic
semiconductors having 4
valence electrons.
• At 0 K all the electrons
are in the valence band
held by covalent bonding
and the material behaves
as an insulator at 0 K.
 Extrinsic semiconductor
• A semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is
called extrinsic semiconductor.
• Extrinsic semiconductors may be n type or p type
depending on the dopent.
• n type extrinsic semiconductors are formed when
a intrinsic semiconductor is doped with Group V
elements like phosphorous, arsenic, antimony
etc.
• p type extrinsic semiconductors are formed when
a intrinsic semiconductor is doped with Group III
elements like aluminium, boron, gallium etc.
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic semiconductor
BASIS OF
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
DIFFERENCE
Doping of impurity Doping or addition of impurity does A small amount of impurity is added to a pure
not take place in intrinsic semiconductor for preparing extrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor. For n type, Group V elements are added and for p type
Group III elements are added.
Density of electrons The number of free electrons in the The number of electrons and holes are not equal. In n
and holes conduction band is equal to the type electrons are in majority and in p type holes are in
number of holes in the valence majority.
band.

Electrical Electrical conductivity is low. Electrical conductivity is high

conductivity
Dependency of Electrical conductivity is a function Electrical conductivity depends on temperature as well
electrical of temperature alone. as on the amount of impurity added to the pure
conductivity semiconductor.

Fermi level Fermi level is in the middle of n type: Fermi level is near conduction band.
forbidden gap.
P type: Fermi level is near valence band.
Energy level diagram
n type P type
Fermi-Dirac distribution function and Fermi level

•
 Fermi Level
• Fermi energy is defined as maximum energy
that a free electron can have in a conductor at
0 K.
• Fermi energy is the energy of the state at
which the probability of electron occupation
is half i.e. 0.5 at any temperature above 0 K.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of electron density
•
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of electron density
•
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of electron density
•
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of hole density
•
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of hole density
•
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Calculation of hole density
•
 Intrinsic concentration

• When a bond breaks in a pure semiconductor it leads

to generation of an electron and hole pair.
• At any temperature T, the number of electrons
generated will be equal to the number of holes
generated.
• The number of electrons is equal to the number of
holes i.e. n = p = ni

• ni is called as intrinsic density or intrinsic

concentration.
 Intrinsic concentration
•
Intrinsic concentration - dependence
on temperature
•
 Intrinsic concentration – Fermi level
•
 Intrinsic concentration – Fermi level
•
Variation of Fermi level with temperature
in an intrinsic semiconductor
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in n type semiconductors
• Let Nd be the
concentration of donors
in the material. At 0 K,
the donor atoms are
not ionized and are at
the level Ed.
• At temperature above 0
K, the donor atoms get
ionized and free
electrons jump to
conduction band.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in n type semiconductors
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in n type semiconductors

•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in n type semiconductors

•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in n type semiconductors
•
 Variation of Fermi level with
temperature
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in p type semiconductors
• Let Na be the
concentration of
acceptors in the material.
At 0 K, the acceptor
atoms are not ionized and
are at the level Ea.
• At temperature above 0
K, the acceptor atoms get
ionized and holes appear
in the valence band.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in p type semiconductors
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in p type semiconductors
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in p type semiconductors
•
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Carrier concentration in p type semiconductors

•
 Variation of Fermi level with
temperature
•
 Generation and Recombination
• When sufficient energy in the form of thermal energy or
optical illumination is given to the semiconducting
material, covalent bonds are broken and a pair of electron
and hole is generated.
• The electrons are raised from valence band to conduction
band. Holes remain in the valence band.
• The process of generation can occur only when the energy
given to the semiconducting material is greater than its
forbidden energy gap.
• The electrons move in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band. Their motion is a random motion.
• The number of electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 Generation and Recombination
• When an electron in the conduction band collides
with other particles, it looses energy and falls to
the valence band. In the valence band the
electron combines with a hole and in the process
energy is released.
• Recombination is the process where an electron
from the conduction band recombines with a
hole in the valence band. This is called band to
band recombination and in the process a photon
is released.
 Generation and Recombination
• At a steady
temperature a dynamic
equilibrium exists which
balances the two
processes of
electron-hole pair
generation and
electron-hole
recombination
 Drift Current
• Under the condition of thermal equilibrium,
the electrons and holes are uniformly
distributed in a crystal and when no external
field is applied current does not flow in the
crystal.
• Drift current: When an electric field E is
applied to a semiconductor, the charge
carriers(electrons and holes) start to move
and produce drift current.
 Drift Current
• The electrons drifting in the conduction band
produce a current component Je given by
• Je(drift) = neµeE, where µe is the mobility of
electrons.
• The hole drifting in the valence band cause a
current component Jh given by
• Jh(drift) = peµhE, where µh is the mobility
of holes.
 Drift Current
• The total drift current density is,
• J (drift) = Je(drift) + Jh (drift)
• = e (nµe+ pµh) E
• Although electrons and holes move in
opposite directions, the direction of
conventional current flow due to both the
carriers is in the same direction.
 Diffusion Current
• Diffusion current: In semiconductors, current
can also flow without the application of
external electric field. The charge
carriers(electrons and holes) diffuse from
regions of high concentration to regions of
low concentration until the charge carriers are
evenly distributed in the material. This motion
of charge carriers produce a current
component known as diffusion current.
 Diffusion Current
• The current component due to electron diffusion
is given by
• Je(diff) = e De
• The current component due to hole diffusion is
given by
• Jh(diff) = - e Dh
• DeandDh are diffusion coefficients for electrons
and holes respectively
• The total diffusion current is J = Je(diff) + Jh(diff)
• J = e De + (- e Dh )
 Drift and Diffusion Current
• The total current density due to drift and
diffusion of electrons is
• Je = Je(drift) + Je (diffusion)
• = e (nµe E + De )
• For holes
• Jh = Jh(drift) + Jh (diffusion)
• = e (pµh E – Dh )
 Hall Effect
• When a piece of conductor (metal or
semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a
transverse (perpendicular) magnetic field, an
electric field is produced inside the conductor
in a direction normal to both the current and
the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as Hall Effect and the generated
voltage is known as Hall voltage.
 Hall Effect
• If the material is a p type semiconductor, when electric
and magnetic field is applied at right angle to each
other, holes experience a force and are accumulated
on one face of the material. This causes a potential
difference and a voltage is developed called Hall
voltage.
• If the material is a n type semiconductor, when electric
and magnetic field are applied at right angle to each
other, electrons experience a force and are
accumulated on one face of the material. This causes a
potential difference and a voltage is developed called
Hall voltage.
Hall Effect
 Hall Effect
• Consider a n type semiconductor in which
electrons have a velocity “v” due to current flow.
Let “B” be the applied magnetic field. The
electrons experience a force of “Bev” due to the
magnetic field.
• This causes the electron current to be deflected
causing a negative charge to accumulate on one
face of the semiconductor.
• A potential difference is established across the
two faces of the material causing a field “EH “.
This field gives rise to a force “e EH “ on the
electrons.
 Hall Effect
•
 Hall Effect
•
 Hall Effect- Applications
•
 Hall Effect - Applications
•
 pn Junction
• A p-n junction is formed when a p- type and n-
type semiconductor are joined through the
process of crystal growth. Within the
semiconductor the region where there is a
transition from p- type to n- type is called a
junction.
• In p-type material holes are majority charge
carriers and electrons are minority charge
carriers.
• In n-type material electrons are majority charge
carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
pn Junction
 pn Junction
• At the junction, holes diffuse from p region to n region and likewise
electrons diffuse from n region to p region. The electrons and holes
recombine and disappear at the junction region.
• Around the junction region, free electrons and holes recombine
and only immobile ions are present. This region is called space
charge region. This region is also called depletion region.
• The fixed ions in the depletion region produce electric field, E. This
electric field opposes the further diffusion of electrons and holes
from n-type region to p-type region. The electric field gives rise to a
potential called potential barrier.
• Further diffusion of electrons and holes across the potential barrier
can only take place when they overcome the potential barrier.
Energy level diagram
 Energy level diagram
• vo = vn – vp , where vo is the contact potential or
the barrier voltage.
• Vn is the potential of depletion region on n side.
• Vp is the potential of depletion region on p side.
• Under unbiased condition no net current flows
and fermi level is common on n side and p side.
• The electric field is given by
• E = Evp – Evn = Ecp – Ecn = e Vo
Circuit symbol of p-n junction diode
pn junction: I-V Characteristics
 pn junction: I-V Characteristics
• Unbiased circuit:
When the junction is not connected to any voltage source, it is said
to be unbiased. Due to the presence of barrier potential across the
junction, there is no flow of charge carriers and hence there is no
current flow through the junction.
• Forward biased circuit:
When the positive terminal of the source (battery) is connected to p
region and negative terminal to n region, the junction is said to be
forward biased.
• Reverse biased circuit:
When the positive terminal of the source (battery) is connected to n
region and negative terminal to p region, the junction is said to be
reverse biased.
 Pn Junction: Forward bias
• When a dc voltage, VF is
connected to the diode in such
a way that the positive
terminal of the source is
connected to the p-region and
the negative terminal to the
n-region, then the junction is
forward biased.
• The voltage across the
junction decreases by an
amount, VO - VF, where VO is
the barrier voltage.
• The majority charge carriers
move across the junction and
hence the width of the
depletion region decreases.
 Pn Junction: Reverse bias
• When a dc voltage, VR, is
connected to the diode in such a
way that the positive terminal of
the source is connected to the
n-region and the negative
terminal to the p-region, then the
junction is reverse biased.
• The voltage across the junction
increases and is equal to, VO + VR,
where VO is the barrier voltage.
• The majority charge carriers are
pushed away from the junction
and hence the width of the
depletion region increases.
• Minority charge carriers drift
across the barrier and give rise to
current.
 pn junction: I-V Characteristics
• A graph that shows the variation in current in a
device with variation of voltage applied across it
is called I-V Characteristics.
• The I-V Characteristics of a pn junction is non
linear.
• The pn junction acts as a closed switch in forward
bias condition allowing large current to flow
through it, and acts as an open switch in reverse
bias condition causing a very small amount of
current to flow through it.
pn junction: I-V Characteristics
 pn junction: I-V Characteristics
Forward bias:
•As long as the forward bias voltage is less than the
voltage across the potential barrier, the current
through the junction is negligibly small.
•The voltage at which the current increases sharply
is called cut - in voltage or knee voltage.
•As the forward voltage increases beyond the
potential barrier voltage, there is an exponential
increase in forward current. The current is in mA.
•The knee voltage for germanium is 0.3 V and for
silicon it is 0.7 V.
 pn junction: I-V Characteristics
Reverse bias:
•Under reverse bias condition a small reverse current (in µ A) flows
across the junction due to minority charge carriers.
•When the applied reverse voltage is high, it breaks the covalent bonds
of the crystal and a large number of charge carriers are produced.
Thus the current rises suddenly in the reverse direction. The reverse
voltage at which the diode breaks down is called breakdown voltage or
Zener voltage.
•The diode break down may be due to Avalanche break down or due to
Zener break down.
•Avalanche break down occurs in diodes which are lightly doped.
•Zener break down occurs in diodes which are thin and heavily doped.
 Zener diode: I-V Characteristics
• Zener diode is a semiconductor diode specially
designed to operate in the breakdown region
of the reverse bias. Zener diodes are always
operated in the reverse bias condition. The
breakdown phenomenon is reversible and
harmless.
Zener diode: I-V Characteristics
 Zener diode: I-V Characteristics
• Zener diode acts similar to a ordinary diode under forward
bias condition.
• In reverse bias condition, as the reverse voltage is
increased a small amount of current called leakage current
flows. Leakage current is due to minority charge carriers.
• At a particular value of reverse voltage, the current
increases suddenly. This voltage is called breakdown
voltage or Zener voltage, VZ.
• In ordinary diodes the breakdown voltage is high and if
reverse current is allowed to flow, then the diode will be
damaged.
• Zener diodes are designed so that their Zener voltage is
much lower, about 2.4 volts.
 Zener diode: I-V Characteristics
• When a reverse voltage above the Zener voltage
is applied to a Zener diode, there is a controlled
breakdown which does not damage the diode.
• In the Zener region the voltage across the Zener
diode remains constant but the current changes
depending on the supply voltage.
• The location of Zener region can be controlled by
varying doping levels. An increase in doping will
decrease the Zener potential.
 Transistors
• A transistor is a semiconductor device
consisting of three regions i.e. the emitter,
base and collector. The three regions are
separated by two p-n junctions.
• Transistors are of two types i.e. npn and pnp.
• Electrons and holes are involved in current
flow through an npn or pnp transistor and
hence are called bipolar junction transistor.
 Transistors
• Emitter is heavily
doped. It injects
electrons into the
base(npn transistor).
• Base is lightly doped
and thin.
• Collector doping is
between heavy doping
of emitter and light
doping of base
 Transistors
• Collector collects electrons
from base in npn transistor.
It dissipates a lot of heat
and hence is largest of the
three regions in size.
• The base is very thin in size.
• The transistor has two
junctions.
• One junction between
emitter and the base(EB
junction) and other
between the base and the
collector(CB junction).
 Representation of transistor
• The arrow in the
representation is between
the base and emitter. The
direction of the arrow is the
direction of flow of
conventional current.
• Conventional current
direction is opposite to the
direction of flow of
electrons.
• In npn transistor, the arrow
points from base to emitter.
• In pnp transistor, the arrow
points from emitter to base
 Biasing a transistor

EB junction CB junction Region

FB FB Saturation region
RB RB Cut-off region

RB FB Inverted mode

FB RB Active region or normal

mode
 Working of CB npn transistor
• The emitter-base junction
of a transistor is forward
biased whereas
collector-base junction is
reverse biased (normal
mode).
• Emitter is heavily doped
• Forward bias voltage (VEB )is
small as compared to the
reverse bias voltage( VCB ).
• The forward bias causes the
electrons in the n-type
emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the
emitter current IE.
 Working of CB npn transistor
• As these electrons flow
through the p-type base, they
tend to combine with holes. As
the base is lightly doped and
very thin, therefore, only a few
electrons (less than 5%)
combine with holes to
constitute base current IB.
• The electrons which combine
with holes become valence
electrons. These valence
electrons flow down through
holes and into the external
base lead. This constitutes
base current IB
 Working of CB npn transistor
• The remainder (more
than 95%) cross over into
the collector region to
constitute collector
current IC. In this way,
almost the entire emitter
current flows in the
collector circuit.
• The emitter current is the
sum of collector and base
currents i.e. IE = IB + IC
 Working of CB npn transistor
• Large amount of heat is produced in the
collector and hence to dissipate heat the
collector region is made large.
• The ratio of number of electrons arriving at
the collector to the number of electrons
emitted by the emitter is called the base
transportation factor, denoted by 'β'. Typically
it is around 0.995
 Working of CB pnp transistor
• The emitter-base junction of a
transistor is forward biased
whereas collector-base
junction is reverse biased
(normal mode).
• Emitter is heavily doped
• Forward bias voltage (VEB )is
small as compared to the
reverse bias voltage( VCB ).
• When forward bias is applied
across the heavily doped
emitter, the majority charge
carriers (holes) move towards
the base. This causes the
emitter current IE.
 Working of CB pnp transistor
• The holes enter into the base(
n-type material) and combine
with the electrons.
• The base is lightly doped, due
to which only a few holes(less
than 5%) combine with
electrons in the base.
• The remainder (more than
95%) cross into the collector
region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way, almost
the entire emitter current
flows in the collector circuit.
 Working of CB pnp transistor
• The reversed bias potential
of the collector region
causes high attractive force
on the holes reaching
collector junction. Thus the
holes are attracted or
collected at the collector.
• Current conduction within
pnp transistor is by holes.
However, in the external
connecting wires, the
current is still by electrons.
• IE = IB + IC