Applied Physics

Unit 4: LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS

Dr. G. Patrick
Lasers: Introduction, Characteristics of lasers, Einstein coefficients,
Resonating cavity, Active medium-Meta stable state, Pumping, Population
inversion, Construction and working of Ruby laser and He-Ne laser,
Applications of lasers.

Fiber Optics: Introduction, Principle and Structure of an optical fiber,

Basic components in optical fiber communication system, Comparison of
optical fibers over conventional cables, Acceptance angle-Numerical
aperture, Types of optical fibers, Losses associated with optical fibers,
Applications of optical fibers.
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
 Ordinary light and Laser light

Ordinary Light Laser Light

• Spontaneous emission • Stimulated emission
• Incoherent • Coherent
• Divergent • Highly directional
• Polychromatic • Monochromatic
• Cannot be focused to a sharp • Can be focused to a very sharp
focus spot
 LASER: Characteristics
Some of the special properties which distinguish lasers from ordinary
light sources are characterized by:
1. Directionality
2. High Intensity
3. Mono- chromaticity
4. Coherent
LASER: Characteristics
 LASER: Characteristics
Directionality
• A very tight beam which is very
strong and concentrated
• The directionality of laser beam
is expressed in terms of angle of
divergence (ᶲ)
 LASER: Characteristics
• Divergence or Angular Spread is given by ᶲ = r2-r1/d2-d1
• Where d1, d2 are any two distances from the laser source and r1, r2
are the radii of beam spots at distance d1 and d2 respectively as
shown in the figure.
• Laser light has less divergence, which means that laser light has more
directionality.
 LASER: Characteristics
High Intensity
• In case of lasers, light is a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated
within the small region.
• The concentration of energy accounts for greater intensity of lasers.
 LASER: Characteristics
• Mono- chromaticity: one specific colour
 LASER: Characteristics
• Coherent
LASER: Characteristics
 LASER: Characteristics
Coherence
• If any wave appears as pure sine wave for longtime and infinite
space, then it is said to be perfectly coherent.
• Practically, no wave is perfectly coherent including lasers. But
compared to other light sources, lasers have high degree of
coherence because all the energy is concentrated within the small
region. There are two independent concepts of coherence.
• i) Temporal coherence (criteria of time)
• ii) Spatial coherence (criteria of space)
Applications of Laser
 Applications of Laser
Communication:
• Lasers are used in optical communications, due to large band width.
• The laser beam can be used for the communication between earth &
moon (or) other satellites due to the narrow angular spread.
• Used to establish communication between submarines i.e. under water
communication.
Medical:
• For removal of Cataract.
• Used to detect and remove stones in kidneys.
• Used to detect tumors in brain.
 Applications of Laser
Industry:
• Welding
• Cutting
• Drilling
 Einstein’s Coefficients
In a collection of atoms, all three transition processes occur
simultaneously:
Transitions:
• Absorption or Stimulated absorption(upward transition)
• Spontaneous emission (downward transition)
• Stimulated emission (downward transition)
 Einstein’s Coefficients

Let
•N1 = number of atoms per unit volume with energy E1.
•N2 = number of atoms per unit volume with energy E2.
•u(‫ = )ט‬energy density of interacting photons.
When these photons interact with atoms both upward(absorption)
and downward (stimulated emission) transition occur.
 Einstein’s Coefficients
• Upward transition
Stimulated absorption rate = N1 u(‫ )ט‬B12
Where B12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption.
• Downward transition
The excited atoms may come down either by spontaneous emission
or stimulated emission.
 Einstein’s Coefficients
Downward transition
• By spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission rate = N2 A21
Where A21 is the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission.
• By Stimulated emission
Stimulated emission rate = N2 u(‫ )ט‬B21
Where B21 is the Einstein coefficient for Stimulated emission
 Einstein’s Coefficients
• Under thermal equilibrium number of upward transitions = number
of downward transitions per unit volume per second.
• N2 A21 + N2 u(‫ )ט‬B21 = N1 u(‫ )ט‬B12 1
• u(‫ = )ט‬A21N2 / B12N1 - B21N2 ----------------> 2
• Dividing all terms by B21N2 ,
• u(‫( = )ט‬A21/ B21) x 1 /[ (B12N1 / B21N2) – 1 ] --------> 3
• By substituting N1/N2 = exp (hʋ/kT) from Boltzmann Distribution law,
• u(‫( = )ט‬A21/ B21) x1/[( B12 / B21) exp (hʋ/kT) – 1] -----> 4
 Einstein’s Coefficients
• Above equation must agree with planks energy distribution –
radiation formula.
• u(‫ = )ט‬8 π hʋ3/C3 [1/exp (hʋ/kT) -1] ----> 5
• Comparing equations 4 & 5
• B12 = B21 and get A21/ B21 = 8 π hʋ3/C3
• The co-efficients A21, B12 and B21 are known as Einstein coefficients.
Requirements for Laser action/Components
of Laser
• Population inversion
• Metastable state
• Active medium
• Resonating cavity
• Pumping
Population inversion
 Population inversion
• Assume there are a group of N atoms, each of which is capable of
being in one of the two energy states.
Let
N1 = no of atoms in the state E1
N2 = no of atoms in the excited state E2
E2 > E1 and N = N0 exp (-hʋ/kT)
where N0 is the number of atoms in the ground state.
 Population inversion
• Under thermal equilibrium condition
N1 >> N2 and Population inversion is not achieved.
• Population inversion is a condition in which
N2 >> N1

This is a non equilibrium state and exists only for a short time.

• Population inversion can be achieved by pumping techniques, which transfers

large number of atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state.
 Metastable state
•
 Active medium
• Active medium is the material in which laser action takes place.
• It is a medium in which population inversion has been achieved.
Resonating cavity
• A pair of optically plane
parallel mirrors,
enclosing laser medium
in between them is
known as optical
resonant cavity.
• One mirror is fully
reflecting and the other
partially reflecting.
 Role of optical resonator
• To provide positive feedback of photons into the
medium so that stimulated emission is sustained and
the laser acts as a generator of light.
• It selects the direction in which light is to be amplified
i.e. in the direction of optical axis of the mirror.
Optical cavity makes the laser beam directional.
• It increases photon density through multiple
reflections.
• It selects and amplifies only certain frequencies
causing laser output to be monochromatic.
 Pumping
• Pumping is the process of supplying energy to laser system to achieve
population inversion.

Methods of pumping
• Optical pumping
• Electrical discharge
How a Laser Works
Three-level Laser System
• Initially excited to a short-lived
high-energy state .
• Then quickly decay to the
intermediate metastable level.
• Population inversion is created
between lower ground state and a
higher-energy metastable state.
Four level Laser system
Solid-state Laser : Ruby laser
 Ruby Laser
•
 Ruby Laser
• One end of the rod is fully reflecting and the other
end partially reflecting. Ruby rod acts as an optical
resonator.
• Ruby rod is surrounded by a helical Xenon flash lamp
which is used for pumping.
Ruby Laser: energy levels
 Ruby Laser
•
 Ruby Laser
• This spontaneous photon stimulates another excited ion to
downward transition.
• This process continues and many photons are released.
• Red photons of wavelength 6943 Å are given out.
• The output is not continues but pulsed.
Gas Laser: Helium - Neon
 Helium – Neon Laser
• In gas lasers such as helium – neon the atoms are characterized by
sharp energy levels as compared to those in solids which have broad
absorption bands.
• Helium – neon laser consists of long discharge tube filled with a
mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio 10 : 1
• Electrodes are connected to high voltage source(10 KV).
 Helium – Neon Laser
• Laser action is due to neon gas. Helium atoms help to excite neon
atoms.
• The discharge tube contains windows placed at Brewster's angle.
• Two mirrors are also present. One mirror is fully reflecting and the
other partially reflecting.
Energy diagram
 Helium – Neon Laser
•
 Helium – Neon Laser
•
 Application of Lasers
• Ruby Laser: Measurement of distance using pulse echo technique,
drilling of high quality holes.
• Helium – neon Laser: Metrological application, bar code reading.
• Carbon dioxide Laser: Welding, cutting
• Argon ion Laser: Welding retinal detachment
• Semiconductor Laser: Laser printer
Introduction to Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optics
• Definition of Optical Fiber:
An optical fiber is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent
dielectric (glass or plastic) which guides light waves along its length by
total internal reflection.
• Principle: The propagation of light in an optical fiber is based on the
principle of total internal reflection.
• Conditions for TIR:
1. Light should be passing from a denser medium to rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than
the critical angle.
Structure of Optical Fiber
• It has three coaxial regions i.e.
the core, cladding and outer
jacket.
• Core: It is the innermost
cylindrical region. It is also the
light guiding region.
• Cladding: The core is surrounded
by the cladding.
• Outer jacket: It is a plastic
coating to protect the cladding.
Principle
•
Total internal
reflection
•
Snell’s Law
Snell's law
•
 Application of Optical Fibers
Optical Fibers have many applications, some of them are:
•They are used for illumination and short distance transmission of
images.
•They are used as wave guides in telecommunications.
•They are used in fabricating sensors.
 Optical fiber communication system
• Fiber optic communication system comprises of:
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
• Transmitter consists of light source and input signal modulator.
• Receiver consists of optical detector, signal demodulator and output
signal display unit such as CRO.
• Optical fiber acts as transmission path. It carries the modulated
output light signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
Optical fiber communication system
 Optical fiber communication system
• Information that is to be transmitted is first converted into an optical
signal from an electrical signal
• The signal is then modulated using a optical source (carrier) by a
modulator. The carrier wave is generated using a LED or Laser diode.
• The carrier source output into the fiber is represented by a single
pulse.
• Optical fiber carriers the pulse.
• In the fiber the pulse is attenuated and distorted and hence repeaters
are used to regenerate the signal.
 Optical fiber communication system
• At the receiver the optical signal is converted to electrical signal using
a PIN diode.
• The signal is then demodulated and the original information is
obtained.
• Couplers are used to couple the modulated light signal to be
transmitted with the fiber.
• Connectors are used to increase the length of the fiber.
• Repeaters are used to reshape, retime and retransmit the signal.
 Comparison of Optical fiber and conventional cables

• Large bandwidth: Optical fiber BW = 1015 GHz, metallic wires = 500 MHz
• Electric isolation: Optical fibers are insulators where as metallic wires are conductors.
Hence optical fibers can be laid even in electrically hazardous environment.
• Optical fibers are immune to EM interference since in optical fibers information is
carried by photons which are neutral and cannot be disturbed by high voltage fields.
• No cross talk in optical fibers since it works on the principle of total internal reflection.
• Small size and weight.
• Low transmission loss: The transmission loss per unit length of an optical fiber is about 4
dB/km. Hence for Optical fibers repeaters are spaced at a distance of 100 km where as
for copper cables it is at a distance of 2 km.
• Low cost: Optical fibers are made of silica which is abundant on earth.
 Acceptance angle
• Acceptance Angle: The maximum angle of incidence to the axis of optical fiber at
which the light ray may enter the fiber so that it can be propagated through TIR.
 Acceptance angle
• The light is launched from a medium of refractive index n0 (n0 = 1
for air) into core of refractive index n1.
• The ray enters the fiber from air medium at an angle of incidence of αi
at the point A. The angle of refraction at A is αr .
• This ray undergoes total internal reflection at B ( core-cladding
interface) at an angle θ. The minimum angle for TIR is θ = θc (critical
angle).
 Acceptance angle
•
 Acceptance angle
•
 Acceptance angle
• This maximum angle is called
acceptance angle or acceptance
cone half angle.
• Light launched at the fiber end
within this acceptance cone
alone will be accepted and
propagated to the other end of
the fiber by total internal
reflection.
 Numerical aperture
•
 Numerical aperture
•
 Types of Optical Fiber
∙ Based on mode of propagation, fibers are classified in to

1. Single mode propagation and 2. Multi mode propagation

∙ Based on variation in the core refractive index (n1), optical fibers are divided in to two types

1. Step index fiber and 2. Graded index fiber

• Based on material, fibers are classified as

1. Plastic and 2. Glass
 Types of Optical Fiber
∙ Based on mode of propagation, fibers are classified in to
1. Single mode propagation and 2. Multi mode propagation
Modes: Light launched in to the fiber within the acceptance cone,
propagates through it by total internal reflection. But only light which
travel through the fiber in a particular direction are allowed, which
satisfy the condition of constructive interference. The light rays
travelling in these specified directions are called modes.
 Single mode and Multimode Fiber
• If the thickness of the fiber is
small that it supports only one
mode then the fiber is called
monomode or single mode fiber.
• If the fiber supports more than
one mode then it is called
multimode fiber.
 Single mode and Multimode Fiber

Single mode Multimode

• Has a small core diameter ( 2 to • Has a large core diameter (
8 µm) and can support only one about 50 µm) and can support a
mode of propagation. number of modes.
• Launching of light in to the fiber • Launching of light in to the fiber
is difficult. is easy.
• Fiber can carry information to • Fiber can carry information to
longer distance since dispersion short distance only since
of signal is less. dispersion of signal is more.
 Step index and Graded index Fiber
• Step index fiber
In these fibers the refractive index of core is uniform and is slightly more
than that of the cladding.
Intermodal dispersion or pulse broadening occurs.

• Graded index fiber

In graded index multimode fiber the refractive index of the core varies
radially. It has maximum refractive index at its center which gradually
decreases with increase of radius. At the core – cladding interface the
refractive index of core and cladding are the same.
Pulse broadening is overcome in graded index fiber.
Step index and Graded index Fiber
 Transmission of signal in step index fiber
• Let a pulse travel through the step
index multimode fiber.
• The pulsed signal travels in different
paths( path 1 and path 2).
• At the receiving end the ray travelling
along path 1 reach first while the ray
travelling along path 2 reaches after
some time delay.
• Hence the pulsed signal received at
the destination is broadened and is
called intermodal dispersion.
• Intermodel dispersion can be
overcome by using graded index fiber.
Transmission of signal in graded index fiber
• Let a signal pulse travel in two
different paths 1 and 2.
• The Pulse travelling along path 1,
travels less distance but in a
medium of higher refractive index.
• The pulse travelling along path 2,
travels more distance but in a
medium of lesser refractive index.
• Hence both the pulse reach the
destination at the same time and
pulse broadening is overcome.
 Meridional ray and skew ray
• A ray that propagates through
the core of a fiber undergoing
total internal reflection is called
meridional ray. A meridional ray
always crosses the fiber axis.
• Skew rays describe angular
helical path as they travel along
the fiber. A skew ray does not
cross the fiber axis.
 Difference between step index and Graded
index fiber
Step Index Graded Index
1. RI of core is uniform throughout except at one 1. Refractive index varies gradually with radial
stage. distance.

2. Single & multimode propagations exist. 2. It is a multi mode fiber.

3. Used for short distance applications. 3. Used for long distance applications.

4. Attenuation losses are of the order 100 dB/km. 4. Attenuation losses are of the order 10 dB/km.
5. Meridional rays propagation takes place. 5. Skew rays propagation takes place.

6. Easy to manufacture. 6. Difficult to manufacture.

 Material of Fiber
• Material of fiber: Plastic or glass fiber.
• Plastic fiber: Plastic fibers are made either entirely from plastic(core
and cladding) or with silica core and plastic cladding.
• Full plastic fiber suffer from high attenuation.
• Plastic fibers are used for short distance(about 100 m), low
bandwidth systems in the wavelength range 600 – 700 mm.
• Eg. Polystyrene, it can withstand temperature of about 700 C
 Material of Fiber
• Glass fibers are made of silica.
• They are used for long distance communication and can withstand
temperature of about 4000 C
• Chemical resistance is high in glass fibers
• Attenuation is less.
 Losses in optical fibers
• When light signal propagates through a fiber, it suffers loss of
amplitude and change in shape. The loss of amplitude is called as
attenuation and the change in shape as distortion.
• Attenuation: The loss of optical power as light travels down a fiber is
known as attenuation.
• Attenuation: It is the ratio of input optical power (Pi) in to the fiber to
the power of light coming out at the output end (Po).
• Attenuation coefficient is given as, α = 10/L log10 Pi / Po dB/km.
• Attenuation is mainly due to
1. Absorption 2. Scattering 3. Bending
 Losses in optical fibers
1. Absorption Losses:
In glass fibers, three different absorptions take place.
•Ultra violet absorption: Absorption of UV radiation around 0.14µm
results in the ionization of valence electrons.
•Infrared absorption: Absorption of IR photons by atoms within the
glass molecules causes heating. This produces absorption peak at 8 µm,
also minor peaks at 3.2, 3.8 and 4.4 µm.
•Ion resonance/OH- absorption: The OH- ions of water, trapped during
manufacturing causes absorption at 0.95, 1.25 and 1.39 µm.
 Losses in optical fibers
2. Scattering Losses:
•The molten glass, when it is converted in to thin fiber under proper
tension creates sub microscopic variations in the density of glass.
Dopents(used to change the R.I.) cause inhomogeneity to be present
and act as scattering centers in the fiber. This leads to losses.
•This is also known as Rayleigh scattering and depends on the
wavelength of light. Scattering losses are inversely proportional to
fourth power of λ.( λ4 )
•Wavelength below 800 nm have high Rayleigh scattering losses and
wavelength above 1700 nm have high losses due to IR absorption.
Losses in optical fibers
 Losses in optical fibers
3. Bending Losses:
•Wavefront travels perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. For this the
part of the mode outside the bend has
to travel faster than that on the inside.
• But according to Einstein’s theory of
relativity, in a single wave front one part
should not travel with higher velocity
than the other part.
•So the part of wave front travelling in
cladding medium lost in the form of
radiation leads to bending losses.
 Losses in optical fibers
• Micro bend is a small scale
distortion. It indicates pressure
on the fiber.
• Macro bending is a large scale
bend. When a fiber is bent
through a large angle it
undergoes a strain. The bending
strain will affect the R.I. and
critical angle of the fiber in that
area and leads to losses.
 Distortion
• The light pulse transmitted through a fiber are of a given width,
amplitude and interval. These light pulses broaden and spread into a
wider time interval because of the different times taken by different
rays propagating through the fiber. This phenomenon is known as
distortion or pulse dispersion. It is expressed in units of ns/Km.
 Numerical
•