ELEMENTS OF SAND CASTING MOULD

STEPS

PATTERN MAKING

CORE MAKING

CAVITY, RISER AND GATING ELEMENTS

MELTING AND POURING METAL

CLEANING OF THE CAST

 ADVANTAGES OF CASTING
• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this
process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be
minimized.
• Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
• The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
• Prototype production in R&D.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.
• Fibrous structure : In cast metals, the inclusions are more or less randomly distributed
during the solidification process. Thus the cast alloys usually do not exhibit any fibering
or directionality of properties.
• Grain size : Most non-ferrous alloys retain the grain size attained during freezing.
Subsequent heat treatment can improve the grain size.
• Density : The density of cast alloy is usually identical to that of the wrought alloys of
the same chemical composition and heat treatment, when both are fully sound.
LIMITATIONS OF CASTING PROCESS
• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limitation to this technique.

• Metal casting is a labor intensive process

• Automation: a question
• Unfavourable working condition due to heat, dust fumes, heaps of scraps and slag
etc. at different stages. Also there is high environmental pollution.
• High energy consuming process
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES
• SHRINKAGE- SOLID SHRINKAGE
• MACHINING
• DRAFT
 Types of Pattern
Single Piece Pattern
• Simplest pattern and inexpensive
• Made out of one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
• Large size single castings are manufactured.
• Moulding operations are manual and so much time is required.
• Generally small numbers of castings are produced.
• Material used are wood or metal (depend on quantity of production
 Split Pattern
• Castings of complicated shape can not be prepared in single piece because of some
difficulties like withdrawing the pattern from the mould, etc.
• Upper part kept on cope and lower part in drag of mould.
• Alignment is maintained by using dowel pins. (i.e., parting line for both pattern and
mould are same)
• One-half of the impression in the mould will be made by using piece no. 1 in one
moulding box and the other half of the impression will be made by using piece no.
2 in a second moulding box. After withdrawing the pattern halves from the
respective moulding boxes, the two boxes will be assembled and clamped together,
so that the complete impression is available for pouring the metal.
 Loose Piece Pattern
• Some patterns can not be removed after putting them in
moulding sand. So for removing
• them, they are made of loose pieces.
• Loose pieces are attached to the main body by lower pins.
• Main body drawn out first and then loose pieces.
• Moulding needs more time.
 Match Plate Pattern
• It has a match plate on both side of which number of split patterns are fastened.
• Pattern of different size and shape can be fitted to a match plate.
• Match plate is clamped with drag by locator holes.
• Runner and gates are attached to the pattern assembly.
• After ramming the whole assembly is removed
• Cope and drag fitted together-forms mould.
• Material - Aluminium normally used because of light weight and cheap in cost.
• Small castings are made in large scale
 Sweep Pattern

• It is a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the shape of the

casting around
• the post/spindle.
• It eliminates need of 3D pattern.
• Used for producing large castings of circular section and symmetrical
shapes.
• Large bells etc.
 Gated Pattern
• Improvement of simple pattern
• Gating and runner system is a part of pattern.
• Productivity increases by eliminating preparation of gating system
manually.
• For producing small size castings for mass
• production.
 Skeleton Pattern
• This pattern is the skeleton of desired shape.
• Skeleton is made from wooden strips.
• Strickle board is used after ramming to remove extra sand.
• If object is symmetrical, then two halves can be moulded by using same pattern
and finally moulds assembled before pouring.
• Large castings in small numbers.
• Turbine blades, water pipes, chutes, L - bends, etc.
 COLOUR CODING FOR PATTERN
Patterns have also some identifiers such as colors on them, each of which has
different meaning that represent different treatments and requirements far
the patterns. The color-coding for patterns in sand casting is as follows

1) Red indicates that the surface of the material should be left as it is after
casting.

2) Black indicates that the surface needs core and shows the position of the
sand core.

3) Yellow indicates that the surface needs machining.

4) Loose piece pattern resting portion is made green.

 Pattern Materials
Selection of pattern material depends on the following factors.
• Number of castings to be produced
• Required dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
• Process used like, sand, investment, shell, etc.
• Moulding, hand/machine.
• Shape, complexity and size of casting.

Wood (Pine, Mahagony, Teak etc)

• Inexpensive
• – Easy availability
• – Light in weight
• – Easy to machine
• – Easy to join for obtaining complex shapes

• Shrinkage and swelling

• – Poor wear resistance
• – Easily absorb moisture and result in change of shape and size.
• – Weak compared to metal patterns.
Metal (Aluminium, Cast iron , steel)
--Stronger and accurate than wooden pattern.
– More life than wood.
– Greater resistance to abrasion
– Greater wear resistance
– Surface finish obtained is good.
– Stable in different environments.

--More expensive as compared to wooden.

– Heavier than wooden (Ferrous pattern).
– Get rusted easily (Ferrous Patterns).
– Can’t be easily repaired (Al) or machined

Aluminium and Al alloys

Advantages
– Best pattern material
– Good resistance to corrosion, swelling
– Good machinability, wear resistance and strength.
– Do not rust
– Pattern cost moderate
Limitations
– Do not withstand to rough handling
– Poor reparability.
 MOULDING MATERIALS
Refractory Sands
• Normally used refractory sands are
• (i) Silica sand (ii) Magnesite (iii) Zircon (iv) Dolomite (v) Olivine (vi) Sillimanite (vii) Graphite / Carbon
Binders
• Binder may be defined as the material which is responsible for the cohesion between the moulding sand
grains in both green and dry condition.
• These provide strength to moulding sand to retain its shape in mould cavity.
• Increase in binder content reduces permeability and increases green compression strength to some
extent.
• Clay is the generally used binder for its low cost and wider utility.
• Some commercially available core binders are (i) Linseed oil (ii) core oil (iii) resins (iv) dextrin (v) molasses
(vi) cereals

The most popular clay types are

• (i) Kaolinite / Fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO22H2O)
• (ii) Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2On H2O)
Additives
The basic constituents of moulding sand mixture are sand, binder and water.
The materials other than these, which are added to moulding sand mixtures are called
additives.
These are added in very small quantities.
Additives are used to
– increase the existing properties.
– develop now properties.
Cereal binders increase strength when added upto 2%
Pitch used upto 3% increases hot strength
Saw dust upto 2% increases permeability
Other materials like sea coal improves surface appearance of cast iron.
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
• Refractoriness i.e., it should be able to with stand high temperatures.
• Permeability i.e., ability to allow gases, water vapour and air to pass through it.
• Green sand strength i.e., when a mould is made with moist sand, it should have
sufficient strength, otherwise mould will break.
• Good flowability i.e., when it is packed around a pattern in a moulding box, it should
be able to fill all nooks and corners, otherwise the impression of pattern in mould
would not be sharp and clear.
• Good collapsibility i.e., it should collapse easily after the casting has cooled down and
has been extracted after breaking the mould. It is particularly important in case of core
making.
• Cohesiveness i.e., ability of sand grains to stick together. Without cohesiveness, the
moulds will lack strength.
 SAND TESTING
• Moisture content test
• Clay content test
• Grain fineness test
• Permeability test
• Strength tests
(a) Green and Dry compression
(b) Green tensile
(c) Green and Dry shear
(d) Transverse (bending)
 Moisture Content Test
• Amount of water contained in moulding sand controls the properties of moulding
sand.
• If moisture content is low strength will not be developed.
• If moisture content is high, permeability reduces. Moisture content can be
determined by the following methods.
Using direct reading moisture teller
• The reaction is produced by providing calcium carbide, Calcium carbide reacts with
the moisture of moulding sand and produces acetylene gas.
• The pressure of C2H2 gives a direct reading of the water content of the pressure
gauge.
Using infrared heating
• Fixed weight of 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in pan and is heated by
infrared heater bulb for 2 – 3 minutes.
• The moisture present evaporates.
• Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighted.
• The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in weights of
original moist and final dry sand samples.
 Clay Content Test
• Take out 50 gram of dry moulding sand and put in a wash bottle.
• Add 475 cc of distilled water and 25 cc of 3% NaOH solution.
• Using a rapid sand stirrer, stir the mixture for 10 minutes.
• Fill the wash bottle with water up to indicated mark.
• Allow 10 minutes for settling of sand, then takeout water from the
bottle.
• Clay comes out with water in dissolved condition.
• Again add water to the sand and stir it, let the sand to settle down
and take water out.
• Follow the above step till water over the settled sand is clean.
• So all the clay has been removed out of sand.
• Dry the sand.
• Calculate the clay content by measuring the difference in weights
between initial and final sand sample.
 Grain Fineness Test
• It has a number of standard sieves mounted one
above the other on a power driven shaker.
• The shaker vibrates the sieves and sand poured on
top sieve gets screened and collected on different
sieves depending upon the various sizes of grains
present in moulding sand.
• There are generally eleven number of standard
sieves mounted one above other and under the
bottom most sieve pan is placed.
• The top sieve is the coarsest and bottom most sieve
is the finest, in between sieves are placed in order.
 Permeability Test
• First, a specimen of standard size is prepared by Specimen Rammer.
• Permeability of sand specimen is determined by passing given
volume of air through the sand.
 Strength Test
• The specimen is held between the
grips.
• Hand wheel is rotated, it builds
hydraulic (oil) pressure on
specimen.
• Dial indicator measures the
deformation occurs.
• There are two manometer
indicators. One is for low strength
sand and other is for high strength
core sand.
• Each indicator has three scales. First
for reading compressive strength,
second for tensile (traverse) and
third for shear strength.
 CORES
• Whenever a hole, recess, undercut or internal cavity is required in a casting, a core, which is
usually made up of a refractory material like sand is inserted at the required location in the
mould cavity before finally closing the mould.

• A core, being surrounded on all sides by molten metal, should be able to withstand high
temperature. It should also be adequately supported otherwise due to buoyancy of molten
metal.

• Cores are made with the help of core boxes. Core boxes are made of wood and have a cavity
cut in them, which is the shape and size of the core.

• The sand in mixed and filled in the core boxes. It is then rammed.

• A core box is made in two halves, each half contains half impression of core.
 Core Constituents

• Green sand cores contain ordinary molding sand and dry sand core
contains hardened or baked sand.
• Core mix contains clay free silica sand. This is suitably mixed with
binders, water and other ingredients to produce a core mix.
• Synthetic core binders have some unusual properties like shorter
baking times and excellent collapsibility which reduces the defect
castings.
• Urea formaldehyde binders burn out faster and collapse at lower
temperature as compared to phenol formaldehyde binders. Thus
urea formaldehyde binders are suitable for use at lower
temperature metals like Al, Mg, thin sections of brass, bronze.
• Phenol formaldehyde binders are employed for thick sections of CI,
steel castings
 Core characteristics

• 1.Good dry strength and hardness after baking

• 2.Sufficient green strength to retain the shape
before baking
• 3.Refractoriness
• 4.Surface smoothness
• 5.Permeability
• 6.Lowest possible amount of gas created
during the pouring of casting
 Types of core
According to the state or condition of core, its classified as,
• Green sand core
Green sand cores are formed by pattern itself.  A green sand core is a part of
the mold  A green sand core is made out of the same sand from which the
rest of mold has been made
• Dry Sand cores
Dry sand cores, unlike green sand cores are not produced as a part of the
sand.  Dry sand cores are made separately and independent of that mold.
A dry sand core is made in a core box and it is baked after ramming.  A dry
sand core is positioned in the mold on core seats formed by core print on the
pattern.  A dry sand core is inserted in the mold before closing the same.
 According to the nature of core
materials employed
A .Oil bonded cores
Conventional sand cores are produced by mixing silica sand with a
small percentage of linseed sand
B. Resin – bonded cores  Phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a
core box  The core is removed from the core box and baked in a core
oven at 375 to 450 f to harden the core
C . Shell cores  Shell cores can be made manually or on machines.
Sand mixed with about 2 to 5 % thermosetting resin of phenolic type is
either dumped or blown into the preheated metal core box. ii. Where
sand blowing is employed, it is preferred to use resin pre coated sand
to avoid resin segregation. iii. The resin is allowed to melt to the
specified thickness. iv. The resin gets cured. v. The excess sand is
dumped and removed. vi. The hardened core is extracted from the
core box. vii. Cores thus produced needs no further baking.
 CORE SUPPORTING METHODS
CORE PRINTS
A core must be supported in the mould cavity. Wherever possible, this is done by
providing core prints. Core prints are extensions of the core which rest in similar
extensions of the mould cavity so that core remains supported in the mould cavity
without the core falling to the bottom of the cavity.

CHAPLETS
Another device to support cores is “chaplets”. These are clips made of thin sheets of the
same metal as the casting. These clips are used to support the weight of cores. When the
molten metal is poured, chaplets melt and merge into the molten metal. Chaplets are
used to support a core and are placed between a core and the mold wall. - As the mold is
filled with molten metal, the chaplet prevents the core to float and move upwards
dislocating from its position. - The part of chaplet in mold will be fused into the casting. -
chaplets not fused properly will create mechanical weakness and mold wall leak. - They
are generally made heavier rather than lighter, such that they seldom unite with the
surrounding metal. - Tin or copper plated chaplets are used for ferrous castings to avoid
rusting. - Radiator chaplets having a flat square ends are fixed in the pattern itself and
will provide good support to core along with rammed sand
Pouring Basin: The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity
because it may cause mould erosion. Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin
which acts as a reservoir from which it moves smoothly into the sprue. The pouring
basin is also able to stop the slag from entering the mould cavity.

Sprue: Tapered shape to prevent aspiration of atmospheric air into the mold.
 Riser
Considerations in Riser Design
(i) Metal in the riser should solidify last.
(ii) Riser volume should be sufficient to compensate the
shrinkage in casting. So, the risers can be made sufficiently
large. But it would increase process cost because it has to be
cut off from the riser as scrap.
Classification
(i) Top risers – open to atmosphere (last effective and
convenient to make)
(ii) Blind risers – completely in mould (more effective and
more convenient to make)
(iii) Internal risers – enclosed on all sides by casting (most
effective and must convenient to make)
 Directional Solidification
When the gating system design is utilized to control this progressive solidification is
such a way that no portion of the casting is isolated from liquid metal feeding channels
during complete solidification cycle, it is called as directional solidification.

It may be defined as solidification which is forced to occur in a particular direction.

Directional solidification in castings starts and progress from the thinnest section
towards the heaviest section.

Effective directional solidification starts from those parts of the feeder heads (riser
system).

It proceeds through casting to the feeder heads.

Feeder heads are designed to solidify last so that liquid metal can be supplied
throughout freezing process.
Internal Chill
Internal chills fuse into and become part of the casting. So these are made of the
same metal which is to be cast.
It is rarely used because structural homogeneity is less due to improper fusion
which results in poor casting quality.
Normally used in the area where it is used is to be removed after solidification. For
example, bosses to be drilled/bored.
These penetrate up to the position in mould cavity where external chills can not
reach.
One end of these remain hanging in mould cavity and the other end is supported in
sand.
Normally not used in nonferrous because it is difficult to fuse properly.
It should be
– clean (free from rust scale, grease etc.
– fuse properly and thoroughly with casting.
Chemical composition compatible with metals to be cast.
Must not change mechanical or metallurgical properties of casting.
Should not remain more than one hour in green sand mould before-pouring
otherwise it may collect moisture.
External Chills
 It is rammed in mould sand walls.
 It is a good way of controlling cooling rates in critical regions of casting.
 Direct external chill is in level with mould cavity wall and thus comes in direct
contact with the liquid metal.
 Indirect external chill is placed behind the mould cavity wall and is fully buried in
sand.
 It does not come in direct contact with the liquid metal.
 Direct chills are more effective than indirect chills.
 Normally made up of steel, cast iron and copper. Copper imparts highest effect of
 chilling because it is having highest conductivity.
 For ferrous casting chills are made out of iron and steel. For non-ferrous castings
iron, steel, copper and block graphite are used.
 Helps to eliminate porosity (micro and micro) at the portions of casting which is
difficult to fed by riser.
 Direct chills should be clean, dry and free from rust. Sand blasting may be done.
 Direct chills should be preheated and dried before pouring molten metal in mould
to avoid blow holes due to moisture present on chill.
Chvorinov’s Rule
It is observed that, when mould wall is plain and flat, the thickness of the skin
formed is proportional to the square root of time.
So t  T
Where t = skin thickness and T = time after pouring the metal in mould.
or t  k T
where k = constant whose value depends on mould material and its thermal
conductivity.
Total time taken for solidification of casting can be expressed by Chvorinov’s
rule which is proportional to the square of the ratio of volume and surface area.

where t = solidification time, ks = solidification

constant, (V/A) = shape factor.
This rule helps in determining the solidification time of
casting. However, it is not very accurate, since it does not
take into account the solidification contraction or shrinkage.
This method is generally used for calculating proper riser
size for short freezing-range alloys such as steel and pure
metals.
(i) Assuming certain value of riser diameter X can be found out.
(ii) Then by using graph, the value of X and Y can be plotted if the assumed diameter meets
the above soundness curve then it is accepted [Fig. 1.28].
(iii) For example, value of X is 1.4 and Y is 0.4 for a particular diameter of riser then the point
will be in soundness zone. So the riser is of required size. If it is in unsound zone then the
suitable size is to be selected by hit and trial method.
PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
FOR DEFECT FREE CASTING
 PRODUCT DESIGN FOR ECONOMICAL
CASTING
The main area for optimization in green sand casting process for efficient and economical quality
casting are:
• Optimizing and reducing riser mass
• Optimizing gating system
• Simulation of mould filling and solidification to avoid casting defects
• Optimizing process parameters of sand mold
• Optimizing pattern plate utilization
• Optimization of mould yield
• Optimum use of pads and chills
• Optimization of melt composition and temperature
• Efficient cooling during solidification
• Reducing oxidation and controlling deformation of casting in heat treatment
• Dimensional control and reducing machining allowance
• Efficient Shake out
• Efficient sand reclamation and recycling
• Foundry mechanization
• Data acquisition system and automatic control.
Optimal riser design Risers are used for prevention of shrinkage defects .
However, they decrease the usage rate of metal and extend the cooling time of
castings after solidification as well. Therefore, proper riser size needs to be
designed to satisfy feeding with the smallest volume.
Optimal gating design The gating design and in-gate position plays an important
role in the quality and cost of a metal casting. Due to the lack of theoretical
procedure to follow, the design process is normally carried out on a trial and
error basis. In production, traditional methods and computer- aided design and
computer aided engineering are combined for gating design recently. But
potential exists for further optimization of gating system.
Simulation of mould filling, solidification and casting defects The defects such
as shrinkage, crack and deformation were the key topics in castings production.
Once the shrinkage deformation and the cracks appear in castings, it will cost
much fees and time for repair welding. The casting might be discarded if these
problems are severe. The stress is one of the main factors that cause
deformation and cracks in castings during casting, heat treatment, machining,
and service. Deformation, tendency to hot tearing, and residual stress in casting
could be predicted by numerical simulation of the thermal and stress fields in
casting during casting and heat treatment, which is helpful for optimizing the
foundry technology.
Optimizing process parameters of sand mold Sand mold is one of the key factors that
directly affect the production rate and product quality. Metal casting industries are
actively involved to reduce the scrap rejection and rework during the manufacturing
process of the components. To achieve this, the production concerns must follow the
quality control procedures correctly and perfectly without any negligence. Timely
implementation of the modified techniques based on the quality control research is a
must to avoid defects in the products.
Deformation control The casting volume and shape will change, and even distort under
the action of thermal stress and phase transformation during heat treatment. The final
shape of casting is affected by thermal strain, elastic strain, traditional plastic strain, phase
strain, and phase transformation- induced plastic strain. It is necessary to optimize heat
treatment for controlling the deformation of casting, which will reduce or avoid the
possible repair welding and shape correction work, and also decrease the machining layer
thickness and time greatly affects the production cost and the casting quality in
production. Large machining allowance will result in extension of machining period and
cost.
Efficient cooling in the casting process The production rate in the casting process is
related to the solidification rate. The production period for sand casting is long enough,
Therefore, it is critical to increase the cooling rate after solidification and shorten the
cooling period in mold To realize efficient cooling some kind of methods were proposed.
CASTING DEFECTS
CASTING CLEANING AND FETTLING
Casting cleaning basically involves taking out the casted component out of mold
cavity, removing all the feeding elements like Sprue, runner, in-gate, riser etc. from
the casted component. In addition to that core, which forms internal feature, also
has to be removed.
Methods:
1. Core sand can be removed by knocking the casting with soft hammer.
2. Hydro blasting: high pressure water jets are also used to remove the core sand.
3. A vibrating platform can also be used to remove cores.
4. For removing gates and risers, hammering is possible for thin section. Sometimes
thermal cutting methods like gas cutters are used for heavy sections.
Cast iron metal- Hammering, Steel- thermal cutting

5. Thin projections formed due to defects, flashes etc can be removed by chipping
off manually.
6. For removing fused sand grains from the casting surface, sand blasting /steel grit
blasting and hammering is used. Blasting involves high velocity air jet with abrasive
particles are directed to the surface.
7. Another common method is tumbling, which is a container in which multiple
castings are placed, and are rotated at moderate speeds 30 to 40 rpm, the friction
between casting surfaces remove projections and fused sands.
Shell moulding
Centrifuge casting
Centrifuge casting
Centrifuge casting
 Permanent Mold casting

GRAVITY FED PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

LOW PRESSURE CASTING

HIGH PRESSURE CASTING : COLD CHAMBER AND HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING

GRAVITY FED CASTING

• Similar to Sand Casting
Classified as Hot Chamber and Cold Chamber Die Casting
COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
Feature Difference between Hot and Cold Chamber Process

(i) Melting unit is not an integral part of cold chamber die casting m/c. Molten
metal is brought and poured into die casting machine using ladles.

(ii) In cold chamber die casting machine molten metal is poured at a lower
temperature than in hot chamber die casting machine.

(iii) For the above reason pressure is more (200 to 2000 kg/cm2) in case of cold
chamber process than in hot chamber process.

(iv) High pressure tries to increase fluidity of molten metal which has relatively low
temperature in cold chamber process.

(v) Molten metal having low temperature and high injection pressure produces
castings of dense structure, sustained dimensional accuracy and free from
blowholes.

(vi) Die castings of cold chamber process has less thermal stress because of lower
temperature of molten metal. But die must be stronger to bear high pressures.
The Investment Casting Process
 Slush Casting
 Slush Casting is a traditional method of permanent mold casting process, where
the molten metal is not allowed to completely solidify in the mold. When the
desired thickness in obtained, the remaining molten metal in poured out.

 Slush casting method is an effective technique to cast hollow items like

decorative pieces, components, ornaments, etc.

 Firstly, a pattern is made using plaster or wood. Now the pattern is placed on a
cardboard or wooden board. A mold box is kept around the pattern. The
unwanted space that is formed is the mold box can be eliminated by placing a
board. Once the pattern is set the molding material is poured on the pattern and
allowed to set with the molding aggregate. When the mold is set, the pattern is
withdrawn from the mold.
 The metal melted completely and poured into the mold which is shaped in the
desired form. Rotate the mold to coat the sides. When the metal settles in the
mold, remaining liquid metal is poured out of the mold. Thus, a hollow skin
metal is formed inside the mold.
 If the cast needs to be more thicker, once again molten metal is poured into the
mold and poured out. This process is repeated until the desired thickness is
achieved. In some slush castings, bronze molds are used. When the metal
hardens, the mold is broken to remove the castings.
 Vase, bowls, candlesticks, lamps, statues,
jewelleries, animal miniatures, various
collectibles, etc. can be made.

Advantages:
Slush casting is used to produce hollow parts without the use of cores.

The desired thickness can be achieved by pouring our the left over molten metal.

A variety of exquisitely designed casting can be casted for decorative and

ornamental purpose.
 Buoyancy in Sand Casting (assignment)

A sand core has a volume 1875 cm3 and is located inside a sand mold cavity.
Determine the buoyancy force tending to lift the core during pouring of molten
lead into the mold? Solution: Density of the sand core is 1.6 g/cm3 .
Density of lead is 11.3 g/cm3.
Answer

The force tending to lift the core is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid
less the weight of the core itself.

Weight of the core is 1875 (1.6) = 3000g = 3.0 kg.

The weight of molten lead displaced by the core is 1875 (11.3) = 21,188 g =
21.19kg.

The difference = 21.19 - 3.0 = 18.19 kg.

Given that 1 kg = 9.81 N, the buoyancy force is therefore Fb = 9.81 (18.19) =

178.4 N.
DESTRUCTIVE AND NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CASINGS AND WELDING
(Assignment)
Destructive Test

Tensile Test
Bending Test
Impact Test
Hardness Test

Non-Destructive Test

Visual Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Ultrasonic Inspection
X-ray Inspection
Eddy Current Inspection
Testing Welds for Leakage by Testing tanks/Vessels Hydraulically