Describe the basic unit of life in living Cells are the basic unit of life, providing

organisms. structure and form to the body.

Cell shape seems to be related to specialised

How do cell shapes relate to their functions?
function.

Most plant and animal cells are quite small,

Define the size range of most plant and
ranging in size between 5 and 50
animal cells.
micrometres in diameter.

Magnification is how much bigger the image

Explain the importance of magnification in appears than the specimen sample,
microscopy. calculated using the formula: Magnification =
size of image / size of real object.

Resolution is how detailed the image is;

What is resolution in the context of better resolution allows a microscope to
microscopy? distinguish between two points that are close
together.
 If a magnified image is 15mm wide and the
How does one calculate magnification using actual size of the cell is 0.015mm, the
an example? magnification is calculated as 15 ÷ 0.015 = x
1000 magnification.

To convert between units, you multiply by the

Describe the process of converting between
appropriate factor: cm x10 to mm, mm x1000
units in microscopy.
to μm, and μm x1000 to nm.

The two main types of microscopes

What are the two main types of microscopes
mentioned are optical microscopes and
mentioned?
electron microscopes.

Electron microscopes use electrons to form an

How do electron microscopes differ from image and have a higher resolution than
optical microscopes? optical microscopes, providing a more
detailed image.

A microscope is essential to see cells and the

What is the significance of using a
organelles within them, producing a
microscope in cell studies?
magnified image for examination.
 Cells can appear in various shapes, including
List some shapes that cells can take. round, concave, rectangular, elongated,
tapered, and spherical.

What happens if a microscope cannot If a microscope cannot separate two objects,

separate two objects? more magnification will not help to see them.

When given sizes in different units, convert

How should one approach a problem
them into the same units before using the
involving different units in microscopy?
magnification formula.

Cells are measured in units compatible with

What is the relationship between cell size and
modern microscopes, which are necessary for
microscopy?
observing their small sizes.

A magnified image is an enlarged

Define the term 'magnified image' in
representation of a cell sample produced by a
microscopy.
microscope.
 Organelles are specialized structures within
Explain the role of organelles in cells. cells that perform distinct functions necessary
for the cell's life processes.

The maximum resolution of an electron

Describe the maximum resolution of an microscope is about 0.0002 micrometres
electron microscope. (μm), which is about 1000 times higher than
that of optical microscopes.

Define the maximum useful magnification of The maximum useful magnification of optical
an optical microscope. microscopes is about x 1500.

Optical microscopes use light to form the

How do optical microscopes form images?
image.

Optical microscopes cannot view organelles

Explain the limitations of optical microscopes smaller than 0.2 micrometres (μm), such as
in viewing organelles. ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and
lysosomes.
 Prokaryotic organisms are made of
Describe the difference between prokaryotic prokaryotic cells (single-cell organisms), while
and eukaryotic cells. eukaryotic organisms are made of eukaryotic
cells.

The cell membrane regulates the movement

of substances into and out of the cell and
What is the function of the cell membrane?
contains receptor molecules that allow it to
respond to chemicals like hormones.

The nucleus is the largest organelle,

surrounded by a nuclear envelope with pores,
Define the structure and function of the containing chromosomes made from protein-
nucleus. bound linear DNA and one or more nucleoli,
controlling cell activity through transcription
of DNA.

How does the nucleus contribute to ribosome The nucleolus within the nucleus is
production? responsible for making ribosomes.

A mitochondrion is an oval or rod-shaped

organelle with a double membrane; the inner
Describe the structure of a mitochondrion. membrane is folded to form structures called
cristae, and it contains a matrix with enzymes
involved in respiration.
 Mitochondria are the site of aerobic
respiration where ATP is produced, and they
What is the role of mitochondria in cells?
are found in large numbers in very active
cells that require a lot of energy.

ATP is the energy-carrying molecule found in

Define adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
all living cells.

Organelles are parts of cells, each with a

How do organelles function within cells? specific function that contributes to the
overall operation of the cell.

Cells are the fundamental units of living

Explain the significance of cells as the basic
organisms, classified into prokaryotic and
building blocks of life.
eukaryotic kingdoms.

ATP serves as the universal energy carrier in

cells, providing energy for muscle contraction,
active transport, synthesis of
Describe the role of ATP in cellular processes.
macromolecules, and stimulating the
breakdown of substrates to generate more
ATP.
 ATP is broken down by the enzyme ATPase,
How is ATP converted to ADP? resulting in the release of energy and the
formation of ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is a

system of membranes with ribosomes on its
Define the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
surface, responsible for folding and
(RER).
processing proteins produced at the
ribosomes.

The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

synthesizes and processes lipids, such as
What is the function of the Smooth
testosterone, oestrogen, and cholesterol, and
Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)?
stores calcium ions, particularly in muscle
cells.

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis,

How do ribosomes contribute to protein made up of proteins and RNA, and can either
synthesis? float freely in the cytoplasm or be attached to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells

Differentiate between 70S and 80S
and in mitochondria and chloroplasts, while
ribosomes.
80S ribosomes are found in eukaryotic cells.
 The Golgi Apparatus consists of a series of
Describe the structure and function of the fluid-filled, flattened membrane sacs that
Golgi Apparatus. process and package new lipids and proteins,
and also produce lysosomes.

Golgi vesicles process proteins by adding

sugars to create glycoproteins, add sugars to
What are the functions of Golgi vesicles?
lipids to form glycolipids, and assist in making
new cell walls during cell division.

Lysosomes are small, round organelles

surrounded by a single membrane that
Define lysosomes and their primary function. contain digestive enzymes called hydrolases,
which are used to digest invading cells and
break down worn-out components.

Lysosomes require an acidic environment,

How do lysosomes maintain their
with a pH around 4-5, to effectively carry out
functionality?
hydrolysis reactions during digestion.

Lysosomes are responsible for getting rid of

unwanted material by engulfing and
Describe the role of lysosomes in a cell. destroying unwanted cell components. They
also participate in processes like endocytosis
and exocytosis.
 Lysosomes fuse with endocytic vacuoles to
How do lysosomes contribute to the process digest the contents that have been taken into
of endocytosis? the cell, such as bacteria engulfed by white
blood cells.

Autolysis refers to the self-digestion process

where the contents of lysosomes are released
Define autolysis in the context of lysosomes. into the cytoplasm, leading to the breakdown
of cellular components, such as a tadpole's
tail during metamorphosis.

Microtubules are long hollow tubes that form

What are microtubules and their function in the cytoskeleton in the cytoplasm, helping to
cells? give the cell its shape and playing a role in
cell division by forming spindle fibers.

Microtubules are organized by microtubule

organizing centers (MTOCs), which control
How are microtubules organized within a cell?
their assembly and disassembly according to
the cell's needs.

Centrioles are paired structures made of short

microtubules, found just outside the nucleus
Describe the structure and function of in animal cells and some lower plant cells.
centrioles. They help in the formation of spindle fibers
during cell division and are located at the
base of cilia and flagella.
 In plants and algae, the cell wall is primarily
What is the composition of the cell wall in
made of cellulose, while in fungi, it is
plants and fungi?
composed of chitin.

The cell wall provides mechanical strength

How does the cell wall contribute to the and support, preventing cells from bursting
mechanical strength of plant cells? due to osmosis and maintaining their shape
as they grow.

Lignin is added to some cell walls, making

them more rigid and contributing to the
Explain the significance of lignin in cell walls.
overall strength and support of the plant
structure.

The primary function of the cell wall is to

What is the primary function of the cell wall? support cells and prevent them from
changing shape.

The cuticle is an extra layer of wax that

Describe the role of the cuticle in epidermal
minimizes water loss by evaporation in
cells.
epidermal cells.
 Plant cell vacuoles are membrane-bound
Define the structure and function of plant cell organelles containing cell sap, which helps
vacuoles. maintain pressure inside the cell, keeps it
rigid, and isolates unwanted chemicals.

Vacuoles in animal cells are small, not

permanent structures, while plant cell
How do vacuoles in animal cells differ from
vacuoles are larger, membrane-bound, and
those in plant cells?
play a crucial role in maintaining cell rigidity
and pressure.

Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis,

What is the function of chloroplasts in plant where light energy is converted into chemical
cells? energy, with some processes occurring in the
grana and others in the stroma.

Prokaryotic cells have circular DNA that lies

freely in the cytoplasm, smaller ribosomes, no
Describe the differences between prokaryotic endoplasmic reticulum, and fewer organelles,
and eukaryotic cells. while eukaryotic cells have linear DNA
contained in a nucleus, larger ribosomes, and
many types of organelles.

Plant cell vacuoles support the cell by

How do plant cell vacuoles contribute to cell
increasing turgor pressure through osmosis,
support?
which helps maintain cell rigidity.
 The tonoplast is the membrane surrounding
Define the term 'tonoplast' in relation to plant plant cell vacuoles, consisting of a single
cells. membrane that helps regulate the movement
of substances in and out of the vacuole.

Chloroplasts consist of a double membrane,

What are the main components of
thylakoid membranes that stack to form
chloroplasts?
grana, and a thick liquid called stroma.

Prokaryotic cells typically reproduce asexually

How do prokaryotic cells reproduce? through binary fission, where a single cell
divides into two identical cells.

Describe the size and complexity of Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler than
prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic eukaryotic cells, with a diameter ranging from
cells. 1-5 μm.

Prokaryotic cells have slightly smaller (70S)

What is the significance of ribosome size in ribosomes, while eukaryotic cells have larger
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? (80S) ribosomes, which reflects differences in
their cellular processes.
 Vacuoles in plant cells store sugar reserves,
How do vacuoles in plant cells assist in
mineral salts, waste products, and secondary
storage?
metabolites important for survival.

The apoplast refers to the interconnected

Define the term 'apoplast' in the context of channels for movement of substances
plant cell pathways. between adjacent plant cells, allowing for
efficient transport.

Hydrolases in plant cell vacuoles may act as

What is the role of hydrolases in plant cell
lysosomes, helping to break down waste
vacuoles?
materials and cellular debris.

Chloroplasts capture light energy and convert

How do chloroplasts contribute to the process it into chemical energy through
of photosynthesis? photosynthesis, with specific reactions
occurring in the grana and stroma.

The cell wall is made up of murein, which is a

Describe the composition of the cell wall in peptidoglycan, providing extra support and
prokaryotic cells. preventing the bacterium from bursting due
to osmosis.
 Ribosomes in prokaryotic cells are smaller
How do ribosomes in prokaryotic cells differ
than eukaryotic ribosomes, specifically 70S
from those in eukaryotic cells?
compared to 80S.

Define the term 'nucleoid' in the context of The nucleoid is the region in prokaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells. where a circular DNA molecule is present.

Plasmids are small circular DNA strands that

What role do plasmids play in prokaryotic provide resistance against antibiotics and can
cells? replicate independently, allowing them to be
transferred between bacteria.

Flagella help bacterial cells swim by moving

How do flagella assist bacterial cells? in a circular motion, enabling the bacterium
to move in a corkscrew motion.

Pili are fine strands of protein that help

Describe the function of pili in prokaryotic
bacteria attach to surfaces and exchange
cells.
substances with other bacteria.
 Viruses are acellular, meaning they are not
made of cells, and consist only of nucleic acid
What distinguishes viruses from prokaryotic
surrounded by a protein coat, lacking
and eukaryotic cells?
structures like plasma membranes,
cytoplasm, or ribosomes.

Viruses reproduce by invading host cells and

How do viruses reproduce? using the host's protein synthesizing
machinery to make copies of themselves.

The capsid, or nucleocapsid, is the protein

Define the term 'capsid' in relation to viruses. coat that surrounds the core genetic material
of a virus.

Enveloped viruses are those that surround

themselves with a portion of the host cell's
What are enveloped viruses?
membrane, incorporating envelope proteins
that help them attach to suitable host cells.

Viruses invade host cells and hijack the host's

How do viruses utilize host cells for
cellular machinery to replicate and produce
reproduction?
new virus particles.
 Viruses may have various shapes but are
Describe the general structure of viruses. mainly symmetrical, consisting of a core of
nucleic acid and a protein coat.

The slime layer or capsule prevents bacteria

What is the significance of the slime layer or
from drying out and protects them from being
capsule in some bacteria?
engulfed by phagocytes.