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Edu101-Final term

foundation of education (Virtual University of Pakistan)

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Sociological Foundations of Education:

A Dynamic and Changing Society: As society continues to change it is important for school and
people in charge of education specially at the policy level to look into that what needs to be change,
how often it needs to be changed and the change must happen in a timely manner.
Society as a Source of Change: Society changes rapidly. Sometimes education cannot cope up with
the fast-changing society Making the “Preparing for students for the world of Tomorrow” difficult. Think
about what we (society) have today that we didn’t have last year. Knowledge as an Agent of Change
Schools as Agents of Change: we talked of the 3Rs only which was reading, writing and arithmetic.
3Rs have gone; focusing today on only those 3Rs will not help our students. Literacy today is more
than simply being able to read, write and being able to do simple quantitative skills. Today we talk off:
Cultural literacy, Scientific literacy, Computer literacy, Technological literacy, Information literacy.
Knowledge as Agents of Change:
Has knowledge grown? Of course, it has, thought of when you went to school and what you are
teaching your students is not the same.
Explosion of knowledge: Quantity of the material has increased, not sure about the quality but
certainly the quantity of the material that a teacher is expected to teach is increased and that will keep
on happening. Knowledge will increase when new information is created.
What knowledge is of most worth? All the information is not needed by anyone, how much of that new
information are we going to give to our students.
Organizing knowledge, subject-cantered: Because of the growth of knowledge, knowledge has been
organized into subjects e.g., English, physics, mathematics etc.
Areas of knowledge: Now there is a need to guide the students in areas of knowledge that which
areas are of their keen interest.
Sociological Foundations of Education: Main elements: Theories about the relation between
school and society. Whether schooling makes a major difference in individual’s lives. How schools
influence social inequalities. How school processes affect the lives of children, teachers, and other
adults
Individual Actions Individuals can take one of the two types of actions. In society, the reasons you
behave in a particular way is because an external force makes you do it. For example, you could not
pass the red signal; you have to stop because following the rules of presence of police makes you do
it. This is known as “determinism” (Determined by external forces)
The other way is shaped by the individual’s “Voluntarism”. You behave in a particular way because
that’s the way you know the right way to behave and this is known as voluntarism. You voluntarily
behave in a particular manner not because an external force is demanding to behave in a particular
way.
Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Theories: stresses the interdependence of the social system, how well the parts are
integrated with each other.
Emile Durkheim: education in all societies of critical importance in creating moral unity, social
cohesion, and harmony moral values are the foundations of society
Functionalists: Assume that consensus is the normal state in society and conflict represents a
breakdown of shared values. -Educational reform is to create structures, programs and curricula that
are technically advanced, rational, and encourage social unity.
Conflict Theories- -The glue of society is economic, political, cultural, and military power. -Ideologies
legitimate inequality and unequal distribution of goods as inevitable outcome of biology or history.
-Whereas functionalists emphasize cohesion, conflict theorists, emphasize struggle in explaining
social order. -Karl Marks is the intellectual founder of conflict theories.
Conflict Theories-2 -The “Achievement Ideology” of schools disguises the real power struggle which
correspond to the power struggles of the large society. -Educational credentials such as college

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diplomas primarily status symbols rather than indicators of actual achievement to secure more
advantageous places in employment and social structure. - “Cultural capital” passed on by families
and schools pass on social identities that either help or hinder life chances.
Interactional Theories -Primarily critiques and extensions of functional and conflict perspectives. -It is
exactly what one does not question that is most problematic at a deep level e.g., how students are
labeled “gifted” or “learning disabled” -Speech patterns reflect social class backgrounds and schools
are middle-class organizations, disadvantages working class children.
Effects of Schooling on Individuals -Knowledge -Attitudes -Employment
Inside the Schools: -Schools from an organization point of view Effects of school size. -Curriculum
expresses culture. -Tracking in public schools, rarely in private schools.
Teacher Behaviour inside classroom. -A teacher has 1000 interpersonal contacts with students
each day. -A teacher at any given time performs multiple roles; instructor, disciplinarian, bureaucrat,
employer, friend, confident, educator Can lead to “role strain”
Student Peer Groups and Alienation: -Students in vocational programs and headed towards low
status jobs most likely to join a rebellious subculture. -Average 12 years old has seen 18000 television
murderers. -Four major type of college students: careerists, intellectuals, strives, unconnected.
-Schools are far more than collections of individuals; they develop cultures, traditions, and restrains
that profoundly influence those in them.
Education and inequality: The following must be eliminated from the society in order to bring
equality: Inadequate schools, Tracking, De facto Segregation, Gender discrimination.
Bernstein’s Theory: -Bernstein talks about code which is a regulatory mechanism that determines
what happens where? In education, he talks of two things; curriculum and pedagogy. -Code refers to
a “regulative principle which underlies various message systems, especially curriculum and
pedagogy.” -Curriculum defines what counts as valid knowledge. Pedagogy defines what counts as
valid transmission of knowledge and evaluation defines what counts as valid realization of knowledge
on the part of the taught. -Bernstein’s work on pedagogic discourse is concerned with the production,
distribution, and reproduction of official knowledge and how this knowledge is related to structurally
determined power relations.
Labelling Theory-1
- Labeling theory is interested in why people are labeled and who it is that does the labeling.
- Deviance is functional to clarifying group boundaries, providing scapegoats, creating out-groups
who can be the source of furthering in-group solidarity.
- “The first dramatization of the ‘evil’ which separates the child out of his group Plays a greater role
in making the criminal than perhaps any other experience He now lives in a different world. The
person becomes the thing he is described as being.”
- “The secondary deviant Is a person whose life and identity are organized around the facts of
deviance.” It is teachers who use labels such as “bright” or “slow”.
Labelling Theory-2: Race and ethnicity are powerful factors in generating teacher expectations. High
expectations in elementary grades are stronger for girls than boys. “If men define situations as real,
they are real in their consequences.” Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. The teacher expectations are not
automatically self-fulfilling.
Processing Social-Educational Priorities: Education for All; child-centered, activity-centered,
experience centered. Focus on Academically Talented Students. Curriculum to challenge the “Smart”
students. Focus on Disadvantaged students.
Pre-literate Societies (before writing) 7000 BC – 5000 BC: pre-literate societies are societies and
communities that existed before writing began. So, obviously the means by which information or
stories were transmitted was oral. Goals of education: To teach survival skills, -Teach group harmony
students: -All children, -No grouping according to age, -All children get together and listen to what
people had to tell them. Instructional methods: Informal methods, -Children imitate adults

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Curriculum: -Practice hunting, -Fishing, -Songs, -Poems, -Dances. Agents: Parents, -Liberal
leaders, -Religious leaders. Influence on Education: -Informal, -Transmission of skills
Influence of Chinese (3000 BC – 1900 AD): Educational goals: key terms in this goal:
Elite means everybody was not meant to be educated. A common man did not receive any education,
Secondly, they had to govern the empire. They had to be leaders and strong people up at the top and
front. This was the sole purpose of giving education only to the elite. Another limitation was that the
education these people got was limited to Confucian principles; only Confucius thought was
transmitted to the next generation. Students: Males of upper class. Instructional Methods:
Memorization and recitation. Curriculum: Confucian Classics. Agents: Government officials.
Influence on Education: Written examination for civil service
Ancient Indian Society 3000 BC – Present India: Educational Goals: To learn behaviour and
rituals based on Vedas. Students: Males of Upper classes. Instructional methods: Memorizing and
interpreting sacred texts. Curriculum: Vedas and religious texts. Agents: Brahmin Priest scholars.
Influence on education: Cultural transmission and assimilation, spiritual detachment
Influence of Egyptians (3000 BC – 300 BC): Educational Goals: To prepare priest according to
scribe for the empire. Students: Males of upper class. Instructional Methods: Memorization and
copying texts. Curriculum: Religious or Technical texts. Agents: Priest and scribes. Influence on
education: Restriction on educational controls to priest elites
Influence of Greek (1600 BC – 300 BC): Educational goals: To cultivate civic responsibility.
Students: Male children ages 7 to 20 years. Instructional Methods: Memorization and recitation in
primary schools, lecture, discussion, and dialogue in higher schools. Curriculum: Athens: reading,
writing, , drama, poetry, music, Sparta: Drill, military, songs and tactics. Agents: Athens: private
teachers, philosophers. Sparta: military teachers. Influence on education: Athens: well rounded,
liberally educated person. Sparta: Concept of military state.
Influence of Romans (750 BC – 450 AD): Educational Goals: Develop civic responsibility for the
empire, -Administrative and military skills. Students: Male children ages 7 – 20. Instructional
Methods: Memorization and recitation in lotus; declamation in rhetorical schools’ declamation is the
ability to create and give a speech. Curriculum: Reading, writing, arithmetic, law and philosophy
Agents: Private schools and teachers, schools of rhetoric. Influence on Education: Practical
administrative skills, -Relate education to civic responsibility
Influence of Arabic Society (700 AD – 1350 AD): Educational Goals: Cultivate religious
commitment to Islamic beliefs, -Expertise in mathematics, medicine and science. Students: Male
children of upper-class ages 7 – 20. Instructional Methods: -Memorization and recitation in primary
schools, imitation and discussion in higher schools. Curriculum: Reading, writing, arithmetic, religious
literature, scientific studies. Agents: Mosques. Court schools. Influence on Education: Arabic
numerals and computation, medicine and science materials
Influence of Medieval on Education (500 AD – 1400 AD): Educational Goals: Develop religious
commitment, knowledge, and ritual; establish social order, prepare for appropriate rules. Students:
Male children of upper class, -Girls and women entering religious community ages 7-20. Instructional
Methods: Memorization and recitation in lower schools, -Text analysis discussion in higher school and
universities. Curriculum: Athens: reading, writing, arithmetic, philosophy, theology, military and
chivalry. Agents: Parish, Chantry, Cathedral schools, Universities, Knighthood. Influence on
Education: Structure and organization of the University, -Institutionalization of knowledge
Influence of Renaissance Period (1350 AD – 1500 AD): Educational Goals: Cultivate Humanist
experts in Greek, and Latin classes; prepare people to serve dynastic leaders. Students: Male
children of aristocracy and upper classes, ages 7-20. Instructional Methods: Memorization and
translation, and analysis of Greek, classical literature, poetry and art. Curriculum: Latin and Greek
classical literature, poetry and art. Agents: Classical Humanists educators and schools like Lycée,
gymnasium and Latin school. Influence on Education: Emphasis on literary knowledge, excellence
and style in classical literature,

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Influence of Reformation period (1500 AD – 1600 AD): Educational Goals: Cultivate a

commitment to a particular religious denomination, and general literacy. Students: Boys and Girls
ages 7-12 in vernacular schools, -Young men of upper class in humanist schools. Instructional
Methods: Memorization drill, translation and analysis of classical literature in humanistic schools.
Curriculum: Reading, writing, arithmetic, catechism, and rituals. -Latin and Greek theology. Agents:
Vernacular elementary school for general public, -Classical schools for upper class. Influence on
Education: Commitment to universal education to provide literacy for everyone.
Important Educational Theorists-1,2
1-Confucius Philosophy was: Developed ethical system based on hierarchy, human relations and roles,
emphasized order and stability. View of Human Nature: Human beings need the order of a
(Chinese)
stable society. People accept duties that come with their station life.
Socrates Philosophy: Philosophical idealism, political conservation. View of Human Nature: Humans
define themselves by self-examination

2-Plato Philosophy: Philosophical idealist, social conservation, added intuition. View of Human
Nature: Humans can be classified on intellectual capabilities

Aristotle Philosophy: Realists, views society based on realism and observation. View of Human
Nature: Humans have the power of rationality to guide their conduct

Ancient Turks-1 (Muslim World)- “Alp” concept was widespread (Alp is the kind of human beings
defined by the Turks). -Alp human being is defined as: warrior, wise, extroverted, nomad, gaining
knowledge from ancestors and old wise people. -In Ancient Turks (before Islam) there is no gender
difference in educating youngsters. -When Western education is being influenced by Christianity, the
eastern education was being influenced by Islam. -The “God” and theology concepts encapsulated
education. -In this period, an “absolute truth” concept gained importance and taught to people in a
domestic way
Ancient Turks-2: -Turks accepted Islam in 10th Century. -Madrasas opened in Samarkand, Bukhara,
Tashkent, Kashgar. -Education was organized and structured in these schools. -Subjects: religion
and social studies were taught. -Agents: Farabi, Ibn-e-Sina, Biruni were some examples that were
raised in these institutions. -They synthesized philosophies from Turk-Islam traditions, Ancient Greek
and Roman Philosophers as well. - period lasted for Gyokuros, Uyghurs, Karamanlis, and Ottomans.
Eastern Philosophers:
Farabi Philosophy: Base for human nature is knowledge. Human mind can distinguish right from
wrong through wisdom. View of Human Nature: The ultimate knowledge is innate.
(870 - 950)
Educational Philosophy: Distinguished teaching from education. Teaching: Reveal
scientific knowledge and art. Education: create theoretical virtues in society, education must
be easy to hard, simple to complex, near to far
Ibn-e-Sina Philosophy: Moral virtues are as important as knowledge itself. View of Human Nature:
(980 - 1037) Children are innocent and clean from the start, should be taught moral values. Educational
Philosophy: Children should be taught without pressure; children should be taught from
ages 6 -14. Agents: should be religious, honest, wise persons that can recognize children’s
abilities
Biruni Philosophy: in order to love each other humans should learn and respect each other’s
language, religion, traditions and thinking. View of Human Nature: Humanistic perspective.
(973 - 1051)
Educational Philosophy: He was expert in astronomy, physics, botany, pharmacology,
geography. Biruni believed scientific work should be cleaned of magic, superstition and
anything that opposes logic
Sulcus Period: -Madrasas should have a certain period of education. -Memorization as well as
discussion were methods used to teach. -Both religious and vocational oriented education. -Children
were taught Islamic educational virtues: cleanliness, generosity, good will, and humanity. -Famous

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names in this period include Maulana Jalal-ud-din Rumi, Younus Emre. -Poetry was an important part
of education and God and human love issues were the main subjects.
Ottoman Period: -Madrasas were important educational institutions and were developed further in
Ottoman Period. -Rich people as well as government build Madrasas everywhere. -The structure was
primary, middle and high school. -Only Sunni Muslim males were accepted in madrasas, no girls were
allowed in the madrasas. -The teachers were called “Madaris”. -Religious, philosophical subjects as
well as literature, science, math, and languages were taught.
Structure of Ottoman Period 16th Century: -Ottoman schools were divided into two: Maktap and
Madrasa. -Maktap: To train people to serve the palace, government and military people. -Fateh
opened “Ende run” Palace School which included talented children of non-Muslim families. Not all
children of non-Muslim families were admitted in these schools but those who are talented and show
their potential. -The language for education was Arabic, but Turkish and Persian were also taught.
Theorists of this Period (Industrialization)-1,2:
Pestalozzi believed that education should be for everyone. Social education: Learning through
experimentation, -Education is for everyone.
(1746-1827)
Herbart He says that you need to manage, educate and discipline young people. -The purpose of
education is to serve individuals. -Attention was focused on the individuals.
(1776 - 1841):
Frobel Focused on pre-school education. -Emphasized that children should be educated from 3-4
years. -Founded “Kindergarten”
(1782-1852):
Tolstoy He believed in Education for freedom. -Suggested master-apprentice relation for teacher-
student. -He was extremely against physical punishment and memorizing.
(1828-1910):
John Dewey -Education for employment and life. -Education is life, it is not preparation for life.
-Education teaches a child to think through action. -Teacher must be a guide to students not
(1859 - 1952):
a dictator.
Maria Sensory education. Used mostly on early years education. -Learning through self-discovery
Montessori and interest. -Uninterrupted play/work time, loosely structured classrooms
(1750-1952):
Ottoman Education-1: Between 1779-1839 was a reform period in education. First in military
education, military schools were opened. In 1824, Al Mehmet made primary education mandatory.
Rustiye mekteplerie, Sultani and Darulfunun) were the Turkish names for high schools. 1856 Islahat
Farmani was formed, that is changes in education. Money will be collected from public for education
Ottoman Education-2: Kanun-I-Esasi: mandated that education is for everyone. There will be no
interference on religious education. Education is free for public. Increased freedom in press. Higher
education for girls and girls started working in government offices.
164 – 20th Century Education
Europe and America: Education started being considered as a field. -In 1950s Skinner with his
experiments in education published education findings. -In 1980s, constructivist, multiple intelligence,
brain-based learning and life-based humanist learning gained importance. Latest Developments:
Teacher education, -1997 educational faculties, -Education in post graduate education, -Constructivist
approach, -Multiple intelligences, -Capital punishment banned at schools
Ghaznavi Dynasty (0970 - 1122): About 400 scholars, poets, scientists, and geographers were a
glory of the court of Mahmood Ghaznavi. -Firdausi, a poet, wrote the “Shah Nama” during that time.
-Attabi, a historian, wrote “Kitab-Ul-Yemeni”. -Alberuni, a philosopher, mathematician, geographer, and
astronomer, made a deep study of the Hindu culture, customs, religion and wrote “Kitab-ul-Hind”.

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Ghauri Dynasty (1192 - 1206): Muhammad Ghauri was not fond of art and literature; however, he
took steps to spread Islamic education. -To achieve this, he got a service of many religious scholars
and saints. -He believed in training his slaves.
Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290): Qutab-ud-Din Aibak built many mosques and cities that became the
centers for worldly as well as Islamic education. He was very generous and kind to scholars and
religious saints. -Altmash was very fond of Art and Literature. -Ghia’s-ud-din Balaban was very
appreciative of scholars.
Khilji Dynasty (1290 - 1321): -Jala-ud-Din Khilji was very appreciative of scholars, wise people, and
artists. -He himself was a good poet. -He set up a library in Delhi and appointed Amir Khosrow as its
supervisor. -Ala-ud-Din Khilji himself was not a literate man but he patronized art and literature.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 - 1414): Ghia’s-ud-Din Tughlaq was the founder of this dynasty and believed
in art and literature. -Ibn-e-Battuta, the famous historian, toured India from 1333 to 1342. He wrote
about his findings and discoveries extensively.
Syed Dynasty (1414 - 1451): -This reign was categorized by lawlessness and disorder. -Most time
was spent on repressing the revolts and thus art and literature suffered. -During the time of Mubarak
Ali, some literary work was done. “Mubarak Shahi” was written during this time.
Lodhi Dynasty (1451 - 1526): Bahlol Lodhi was himself not a literate man but he was much
appreciative of scholars of various disciplines and also rewarded them. -He patronized literary
activities. -Sikander Lodhi had a high literary taste. Persian language flourished in his reign. -Ibrahim
Lodhi was an ideal man. Not much attention was given to literary works during his reign.
Mughal Dynasty (1526 - 1857): In their reign, art and literature flourished and made great progress.
-Numerous books of foreign languages were translated into Persian. -Many biographies and historical
events were written. -During this time, some famous scholars
Role of Sufis: Muslim Sufis played an important role in spreading Islamic education in India. -Many
Scholars wrote famous books. -They focused on religious and secular education. -Scholars and
religious saints from other countries like Afghanistan, Iran, Turkistan, Arabia, Syria and Egypt kept
visiting India.
Educational Conference 1947: Under the dynamic leadership foreside and vision of Quaid-e-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, soon after the creation of Pakistan the first educational conference was held in
Karachi in December 1947.
Two Nation Theory: Since Pakistan came into being on the basis of Two Nation Theory, the
conference recommended that the educational system should be based on this and a society be
created that should reflect Islamic education.
Educational conference 1947 - 1: Promote National Unity: The Conference strongly recommended
to promote a passion of national unity among all people of the provinces to avoid damage by
provincial prejudices to the progress of the country. Establishment of a Democratic Society: A
recommendation was made to set up a democratic society in the country and there was a stress to
train the citizens in the civic matters so that they may be able to know about their rights and duties.
Urdu as a Medium of Instruction: Urdu has gained a high-ranking status in the subcontinent
because this was the only language that was spoken and understood. Therefore, the conference
recommended to adopt it was as the medium of instruction as a means of unity among provinces.
Educational conference 1947 - 2: English as Means of Instruction be Abolished Gradually:
English language as a means of instruction was seen as a memory of the English rule over India. After
getting freedom, there was a need to abolish English as a medium of instruction. The conference
recommended the abolishment of English Language gradually. The Formation of Central
Educational Consultation Board: The conference recommended the formation of a Central
Educational Consultation Board which should comprise of provincial ministers of education dpis;
members of the National Assembly and eminent educationists of all provinces.
Educational conference 1947 – 3: Arrangement of Training of Teachers: To use and to act upon
modern teaching methods, training of teachers is very necessary. The conference made strong

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recommendation in this regard. Training for good citizenship: The conference recommended
training the children to become good citizens of Pakistan and to create in them a sense of good
citizenship to promote an exemplary society. Setting up for an Inter Disciplinary Board: In order to
coordinate the programs of Universities of the Country in terms of educational and research, the
conference recommended for setting up of an Inter University Board.
Educational conference 1947 – 4: Reorganization of Technical Education: The conference
advised to reorganize the technical education in Pakistan. For this purpose, Industrial Research
Council and Technical Education were recommended to be set up. Increase in Primary Education
Period: The conference recommended the period of primary education to be increased from four
years to five years. Women Education: The conference stressed women education and
recommended coeducation at primary stage. Adult Education: The conference stressed adult
education to increase the rate of literacy in the country in a very short period and therefore
recommended to take speedy measures to arrange for adult education.
Educational conference 1947 – 5: agreed upon the following objectives of education:
The preservation of Nazaria Pakistan. -Training for good citizenship. -Training for Democracy. -Urdu
as Medium of Instruction. -Primary Education compulsory for all. -Compulsory religious education.
-Gradual abolition of English as Medium of Instruction. -Reorganization of Technical Education
National Education Commission 1959 (Primary Education) Objectives: According to the
Commission, primary education should enable a student to read and write. To create a sense of self
confidence and curiosity in the child. To create a passion for hard work in the child. To equip the child
with information and skill. To create a love for physical work and games.
Primary Education 1959 (Curriculum): The curriculum should be according to the need and ability of
the child. Practical and Planning methods be used for teaching children. National Language be taught
to all children. A passion for patriotism be created in children. National Anthem be sung in the morning
assembly and Pakistan flag be hoisted.
Organization: Primary Education be organized at the district level. -An education committee be set up
in every district with Deputy Commissioner as its Chairman and the District Education Officer along
with four members. -Every district be divided into Union Committees which should consist of three
members nominated by the Deputy Commissioner of the District.
Financing: Land, property and equipment of primary schools should be the responsibility of the
people. -Half of the total expenditure of primary education should be borne by the provincial
governments and the other half be met through district taxes.
Primary Education 1959 (Facilities for Teachers): Teachers of Primary Education should be
provided some professional training. Refresher courses be arranged now and then for the teachers.
Rewards in cash or certificates be given to teachers showing better working. For the first three classes
of primary education, female teachers be preferred to male teachers. Residence arrangement for
female teachers be made.
Secondary Education 1959 Objectives: -To create the freedom of thinking among children. -To
create a sense of research and curiosity in children. -To create a sense of leadership in children. -To
create an aesthetic sense in children. -To create interest for taking part in games in children.
As a citizen: To create a social responsibility sense among children. -To create a cooperative spirit
among children. -To develop a habit among children to take part in social welfare. -To prepare children
for practical life needs of the day. As a worker: -To create a sense of dignity of work. -To provide
facilities for professional guidance so that children can choose skills and profession according to their
interest and taste. As a Patriot: -To equip children with education that reflects Islamic values. -To
create a passion among children to feel proud of being Pakistanis. -To give knowledge of cultural
heritage to the children.
Secondary Education 1959 – 1: will consist of three stages: From sixth to eighth class Middle. -From
ninth to tenth class Secondary. -From eleventh to twelfth class Higher Secondary

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Curriculum: Curriculum should consist of compulsory and optional subjects. -Optional subjects may
be placed into many groups so that children can choose based on their taste and interest. -Science,
Mathematics and National Language be given more stress. -Religious education be made compulsory
at middle stage. Examination System: of secondary stage, be reorganized. Examinations should be
held after tenth and twelfth classes. -Examination record of all examinations be kept safe for certain
period. -Secondary Education Boards be allowed to issue certificates. -Private students should have
the same syllabus as those of the regular students and they should be allowed to sit in the
examination.
Secondary Education 1959 – 2: Service Conditions for Teachers: At the secondary stage, trained
teachers be appointed. -Refresher courses be held during service. -Education year will consist of forty
weeks. Summer vacations for two months, winter vacations for 10 days. -Casual leaves of twenty
days be decreased to five days only. -Secondary schools should be provided with the building,
playground and necessary equipment.
Higher Education 1959 – 1: Duration: Higher education has a separate status of its own. Therefore,
intermediate classes should be handed over and shifted to Secondary Education Boards. Every
University should fix a standard for admission by itself. Syllabus: The syllabus should be prepared
according to the needs of the modern age. -A separate department for teaching of world’s important
and current languages according to the industrial, commercial, and administrative and defence needs
be opened. -Modern disciplines like Business Administration, Journalism, Sociology, Home Economics
etc.
Higher Education 1959 – 2: Examination System: 75% marks on the basis of external examination
and 25% on internal assessment. Examination should be organized in such a manner as to assess
the ability rather than memory of a student. Research and Training: Research work should be made
compulsory for university teachers. For research and teaching programs, a study committee be set up
in every university. Research done in other universities should be awarded for the benefit of teachers.
Higher Education 1959 – 3: Service and Facilities for University Teachers: facilities be provided
to the University teachers and the students engaged in research work. University Academic year
should be thirty-six weeks. Every University teacher should devote 1440 hours per year to teaching.
Teachers should be promoted on the basis of high performance. Professional Education: Admission
criterion engineering colleges should be at least FSC. (Pre-Engineering). The standard of education
for admission in law colleges should be at least BA/BSC. Commerce institutions be opened in the
country to teach official matters, banking and insurance.
Technical Education 1959 - 1: -Technical education be made part of education system. -Polytechnics
in the country be upgraded to technical colleges. -Vocational schools should be spread widely in the
country. -Technical Education Board be set up for the examination of technical subjects.
Technical Education 1959 - 2: The students be trained as apprentices in industries. The students
should be given general education up to eighth class. Professional courses for students be part of the
curriculum and should be included so that students may be able to choose subjects according to their
interest and taste.
National Education Commission 1959 (Critical Analysis): The National Education Commission
ignored the Islamic objectives while determining the educational objectives. The Commission
recommended to make good citizens and good scientists but to make them good Muslims did not
present a solid proposal. Instead of bringing about a revolutionary change in administrative structure,
the old structure was recommended with some minor changes which could not produce desired
effects
National Education Policy 1970 - 1: Also known as “The Noor Khan Report”, because of the
extensive work of one individual in the process of formulating this policy. Guiding principles and
objectives for Growth of Education: Education should play a central role to sustain Islamic values
and national unity. Scientific and technical education be given attention to fulfil the economic needs of
the country. The role of the teacher is decisive in improving the standards of education.

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National Education Policy 1970 – 2: Primary Education: This has been thought as a basic principle
in the government policy. It was recommended to make common the primary education up to class
five by 1980 and then be raised to the level of class eight. Education of girls was to be encouraged.
Secondary Education: Scientific, technical and professional education has been stressed. A target of
education of four hundred thirty thousand (430,000) students has been fixed in the plan of 1970.
Higher Education: The curriculum has been stressed to be reorganized to improve higher education.
New colleges be opened for science education. Centres for excellence be opened in the Universities
where research work be done. Adult Education: In the Education Policy of 1970, adult education has
been stressed much and the setting up of an Education Corps has been recommended.
National Education Policy 1970 – 3: Reorganization of curriculum: Curriculum Research
Committee centers at the provincial level be set up and scientific and technical education be included
at every stage. In addition to this, education as a subject be included in the curriculum as an optional
subject. Examination System: The existing system of examination has been thought in the report as
unsatisfactory because it does not measure the ability of students. It therefore needs to be reformed
and restructured.
National Education Policy 1970 – 4: Training of Teachers: It has been recommended in the report
that one hundred and thirty-eight thousand (138,000) teachers be provided training and one hundred
and fifty thousand (150,000) teachers be trained during services. National Language as Medium of
Instruction: It has been recommended in the report that a commission be set up to make the national
language the medium of instruction. Textbooks be published in Urdu language.
National Education Policy 1970 – 5: Scientific and Professional Education: Scientific Research
Centres be set up in the country. Training centres in industries be opened for professional education.
New Universities: It has been recommended in the report that the number of students in secondary
schools has increased to the level that students find difficulty in getting admission in the present
universities. Therefore, according to the phased program, new universities be established. University
Grant Commission: To hold communications with all universities. To determine the financial needs of
the universities and to distribute the amount of grant.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980: Objectives of education: -To preserve and promote the
ideology of Pakistan. -To establish a National Unity by promoting social and cultural unity through
education. -To promote qualities of leadership among students. -To create a sense of dignity of labor
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (1): Free and Compulsory Education: In the policy of
1972, education was made compulsory at the primary level for children and it was announced that in
October, 1972 education up to middle level will be made free and in October 1974 it will be free up to
matric level. Technical Education: It was recommended that polytechnic institutions be upgraded to
polytechnic colleges. -The students will be provided two years of practical training after passing a
three-year diploma course. -Diploma holders from polytechnics be allowed b-tech degree after
passing a course of one year.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (2): Nationalization of Institutions: -All private institutions
were nationalized on October 1, 1972. The owners of these schools were paid no money or any other
compensation. -It was a great deed of course because in this way privately managed schools and
colleges had been deprived of doing any injustice to servants and teaching staff.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (3): Facilities and Training of Teachers: Refresher
courses and training abroad for teachers were to be arranged. -In addition, a School Service Academy
was proposed to be established on the pattern of Civil Service Academy. -The number of teachers
was insufficient, therefore, education as a subject be given proper attention and students graduating
with this subject to be provided job of teacher.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (4): Facilities for Students: -Much attention has been given
to students in this policy. -Education up to matric for all students was made free. -Students were
allowed to have loans from banks to be returned in instalments after getting jobs.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (5): Setting of New Universities: -There were seven
universities in the country in 1972. -In Baluchistan, a university was opened. -In addition, for medical

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education, three new colleges one each at Karachi, Larkana and Nawab Shah were opened. Centres
of Excellence: -Centres for Excellence were to be set up in the universities to provide chance and
facility of research to able and intelligent students. -The main aim of these Centers was to produce
experts in the field of Chemistry, Physics, Fishery and Water Outlets. National Professorship: The
policy stressed to start the plan of national professorship so that able and intelligent professors should
not leave teaching jobs because of low salaries in colleges to join administrative posts having more
benefits.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (6): New Boards Be Set Up: The existing Secondary
Boards of Education were not sufficient to meet the needs of the students. So, it was decided to set
up new boards to make the system of examination easier and more effective. Amendment in
University Ordinance: It was said in the educational policy that the infamous University Ordinance be
amended to bring it in line with democratic law-making system. The autonomous position of
universities be restored. University Grants Commission: The Commission of 1959, recommended
the establishment of University Grants Commission. In the report of Noor Khan in 1970, it was again
recommended. In the Policy of 1972, it was established practically. Religious Education: Islamiyat
was made compulsory up to matric level and it was decided that in the textbooks of Islamiyat nothing
repugnant to the teaching of Islam should be included.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (7): Critical Analysis: Instead of opening public schools for
the elite class, government opened hundreds of schools and colleges for the middle class. Millions of
teachers and other servants in the privately managed schools were saved from the exploitation of the
management of these schools. National book Foundation was set up to provide students cheap and
quality books.
National Education Policy 1972 – 1980 (8): Critical Analysis: Many universities were established in
the country, Jamia Islamia, Bahawalpur, Agriculture College Tandon Jam, NED College Karachi, Jam-
Shoro Educational College
National Education Policy 1978 – 1: To create a love and affinity among public and students of
Pakistan for Pakistan. To create a sense among students that being Pakistani, they are members of
Islamic world at the international level. To prepare such citizens well equipped with the Ideology of
Pakistan. To build the character of people and individuals in the light of Quran and Hadith.
National Education Policy 1978 – 2: Objectives of Education: To create a passion and discipline in
the new generation. -To promote scientific, professional and technical education in the country. Basic
of Islamic Education: The foundation of educational system of Pakistan was based on the Islamic
Ideology of Pakistan and Muslim Nationalism. The aim was to mould the character of individuals into
Islamic world so that an exemplary society be created. Universal Primary Education: The target was
to open 13,000 primary schools so that by 1992 all children of the country could get admission in
primary schools. -A target of opening 1,000 workshop schools was also fixed. The aim was to teach
children different domestic handicrafts and skills so that they might become useful members of the
society. Secondary Education: 1,000 middle schools were to be upgraded to secondary schools and
200 new secondary schools were to be opened. -This would increase the number of students from
1,800,000 to 2,800,000 at the secondary level.
National Education Policy 1978 – 3: Higher Education: It was decided to provide new buildings
and necessary equipment up to 1992 to encourage research at the university level. It was also
decided that expenditures of universities will be met by the central government. Compulsory
Teaching of Islamiyat, Pakistan Studies and Arabic: In every sector of education, national and
Islamic identity must be stressed. At the intermediate level, teaching of Islamiyat and Pakistan Studies
was made compulsory. Arabic language was also considered necessary being language of Quran and
Hadith. Adult education: opening of 10,000 centres for adult education was proposed. - centres will
be equipped with necessary equipment with the help of UNESCO and 10,000 television sets will be
provided.
National Education Policy 1978 – 4: Adult Education: Allamah Iqbal Open University will prepare
programs for adult education through Radio and TV. -It was expected that the rate of literacy will
become 35% in 1992 and it will be 100% in 2010. Women Education: Women education is important

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for every nation. According to Abraham Lincoln: “When you educate a man, you educate an
individual only; but when you educate a woman, you are actually educating the whole family.”
National Education Policy 1978 – 5: National Education Council: A committee consisting of nine
members was proposed to be set up to work as advisory body at the higher stage. The members of
the Committee include Secretary Central Ministry of Education. Special Education for Disabled: It
was proposed that the central government will arrange and plan such measures as to make the
disabled, deaf and dumb, mentally retorted and the blind to become useful members of society by
learning different suitable skills. National Technical Teacher Training College: In the educational
policy of 1978, technical education was specially stressed upon, therefore, on the national level, the
establishment of a College for Technical Teacher Training was recommended.
National Education Policy 1978 – 6: Why target for literacy was not met: Reduction in the amount
allotted for education. -Opening of new primary schools. -Less increase in number of students. -Less
facilities for Teachers.
National Education Policy 1992 – 1: Aims of Education: To promote Islamic values through
education. -A large number of educated men and women will be prepared to bring healthy changes in
society. -A trend of critical thinking will be produced in students instead of learning by rote. -A practical
type of education will be given to the students to enable them to create means of livelihood.
National Education Policy 1992 – 2: Primary Education: to be made compulsory and free for all.
-At least two rooms and five teachers should be a primary school. -Within the passage of time, the
primary education be converted into basic education. -Women teachers should be appointed in the
primary schools gradually to replace male teachers
National Education Policy 1992 – 3: Secondary Education: At schools’ level, two types of
institutions be established. -From class 1 to high school education, the syllabus should be of twelve
years duration. -Higher secondary education will be delegated to the school section instead of
colleges. -In high schools, laboratories for science subjects shall be established separately.
National Education Policy 1992 – 4: Higher Education: Special funds be provided for the
departments doing research work. -Twenty new universities will be opened next ten years and these
will be the private sector universities. -The cooperation and relationship of Pakistani Universities with
foreign universities be strengthened.
National Education Policy 1992 – 5: Higher education: At the degree level, three years honors
courses be introduced so that students may learn practical skills and such like disciplines.
Educational Technology: Educational technology, educational equipment and information technology
will be used to promote education and use of media will be made to give formal and informal
education to the public. Education system: Some revolutionary proposals were offered to check
malpractices in the examination branch, examination system and examination centers.
National Education Policy 1992 – 6: Education for Rural Development. National Testing Service
National Education Policy 1998 – 1: Objectives of Education: Quranic, Islamic and spiritual
education must be an integral part of curriculum at all levels. -Standard of technical education be
raised to provide the professional and skilled people with more chances of employment.
National Education Policy 1998 – 2: Objectives of Education: All schools in the country should
have facility of computers in classrooms to be used for instruction. -At present, the educational budget
is 2% of the GNP of the country. -This shall be increased and an attempt will be made to increase it
continuously to reach 5% of GNP of the country.
National Education Policy 1998 – 3: Primary education: Existing facilities to be availed fully and
new facilities to be provided. -Media to be fully used for promotion of elementary education. -Poor
students will be provided books and notebooks free of cost at the beginning of the educational year.
National Education Policy 1998 – 4: Secondary Education: A model high school or a higher
secondary school should be opened in every district where O and A level education be given.

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National Education Policy 1998 – 5: Higher Education: Admission in higher education institutes be
done on merit basis; for this purpose, an NTS test be used. -Colleges having good reputation will be
allowed to have their own syllabus.
National Education Policy 1998 – 6: Higher Education: Degree colleges will be allowed to affiliate
themselves with a university of their choice. -In big institutions Centres for Advanced Studies and
Research be established.
National Education Policy 1998 – 7: Higher Education: Honours programs at the BA/BSc level will
be introduced which will consist of three years period after intermediate and at the time of admission
to a university, such honors degree holders will be preferred.
Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1973 Article 37 – b says: “The State shall remove
illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum possible period.”
Concurrent Legislative List may include: Curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy, centres of
excellence, standard of education and Islamic education. Moving from there in 2000 we turned into a
new millennium. Pakistan also put forth what we called “Millennium Development Goals”.
Millennium Development Goals 2001: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children
in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free
and compulsory primary education of good quality. -Eliminating gender disparities in primary and
secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on
ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.
Problems and Issues in Education: Education for All: Equality of rights between men and women,
especially as it applies to access to education, has contributed to the development of concept of the
right to education for all. As a result, the education sector’s greater openness to girls has made it
possible to re-examine the issue of social justice and promote egalitarian gender relation. Thus, girls
and women must be given priority in the field of education
1960 Convention against Discrimination in Education (Paris)
1979 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(United Nations, New York)
1990 World Declaration on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand)
1995 Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China)
2000 Dakar Framework for Action, “Education for All: Meeting Our collective Commitments”, World
Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal)
2000 United Nations Millennium Declaration (United Nations, New York)
2005 Plan for Action of the World Program for Human Rights Education (United Nations, New York)
Millennium Declaration, United Nations 2000: Goal 1: Ensure Primary Education for All. Goal 2:
Promote gender equality and empowerment for women
Promoting Gender Equality 1: The elimination of stereotype and the most blatant sexism is
insufficient. -All character’s form part of the gender system presented in a textbook, but the system is
not present in the same way throughout the textbook. -All gendered representations of male and
female must therefore be monitored accordingly, taking into account.
Promoting Gender Equality 2: In addition, the connection between the text and illustrations must be
analysed carefully. -Text and illustrations must be redundant or conflicting, they may reinforce or,
conversely, weaken each other’s messages.
How should character be gendered?: In texts: A character’s sex is indicted by the grammatical
gender of the pronoun, proper noun or common noun. therefore, language (grammar and vocabulary)
plays a vital role here. A pronoun: he/she, -A first name: male/female, -A surname, -A family
relationship, -Another relationship: friend, neighbour, colleague

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Purity must be ensured: Between men, women, girls, boys in both text and illustrations. -In all the
different part of the textbooks, such as, the lessons, passages of text and exercises. -In presenting
and referring to well-known figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, sport, the arts and
economics.
Environmental Education - 1: Tbilisi Conference, USSR, 1977: To create environmental
awareness. -To disseminate knowledge and skills. -To initiate new behavioural approaches, at the
individual or group levels, towards environment. -To help in promotion of environmentally sound
development-program towards sustainable growth.
Environmental Education – 2: Educational Objectives: Firstly, by bringing about positive
attitudinal and behavioral changes in teachers and students, in respect of environmental problems and
conservation. Secondly, by creating awareness about past, current and expected situations of
environmental considerations in pursuit of sustainable environment. Thirdly, by disseminating
information and exchanging knowledge and experience gained in achieving the goals of sustainable
development. Fourthly, encouraging and developing critical thinking among students in dealing with
real-world environmental challenges, in general, and those of local origin in particular.
Environmental Education – 3: Mainstreaming Human Rights: -Right to fresh air. -Right to safe
drinking water and sanitation. -Right to food, education, shelter and security. -Enforcement of
environmental law and institutional development. -Positive attitudinal and behavioural change towards
environment
Environmental Education – 4: Mega Issues: -Greening Pakistan: increase forestry, wildlife, creation
of lungs of cities (pockets of plantation in big cities by recycled water). -Strategic Pakistan: address
long term mega issues; priority setting in local, national, regional, international context. -Mega issues
of Pakistan: water conservation, surging population, minimizing climate change impact (glacier
melting)
Linguistic Inequalities- 1: The Urdu-English Medium (Divide in Pakistan)
1. The National Language of Pakistan is Urdu and arrangements shall be made for its being used for
official and other purposes within fifteen years from the commencing day.
2. Urdu- National Language and lingua Franca (MT for only 7%)
3. Regional languages – used mainly in informal social interactions.
Linguistic Inequalities- 2: English – Official language and gatekeeper for entry into prestigious
higher education institutions, high salaried jobs; also, the language of military and bureaucracy.
Linguistic Inequalities- 3: ‘Truism in Pakistan’: English is necessary for individual and national
development. -English is a passport to success and upward social mobility. -English is the key to
national progress
Educational context in Pakistan School Level: Urdu-medium schools (mainly state operated),
English-medium schools (mainly private)
Elitist, Non-elitist (so-called English-medium), Madrasas (Mainly Arabic), Two tracks within English-
medium, O/A level, Matric/Intermediate.
Inclusive education: Students cannot learn general curriculum unless they are in the room where it is
being taught. Physical therapy, Curriculum adaptation, Communication board, Behaviour plan,
Environmental accommodation
Accommodation or Modification: Accommodations are used when the student is expected to learn
the same curricular content. But the student may be taught in a different way or need changes in the
environment. Modifications are used when the student is expected to learn less or different curricular
content. This could require the modification of assignments, tests, worksheets and other materials in
classroom.
What are accommodations: are changes in teaching methods. -When you teach, who teaches, how
you teach, How the student can respond, Materials you use Accommodation translation

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Room Accommodations: Stand instead of sitting, or sitting instead of standing. -Picture schedules,
visual cues or visual timer. -Colour coding. -Visual organization of the room and supplies
Teacher accommodators: Do not wear cologne. -Do not wear a lot of jewellery. -Count to 10 before
letting anyone answer questions (processing time).
Teacher Accommodations: Vary teaching methods. -Divide the class. -Set up lessons. -Change the
learning goals. -Create alternative activities
Is Pull out Best? “Pull out” means removing the student from class for a small group of 1-to-1
instruction Ask: -Why cannot the skill be taught in the general classroom? Are there ways to change it
so it could be taught there?
Accommodations Work!
Before After
- Refused to do work - Done class work; learned difficult terms like life span
- Behaviour outburst. -Yelled and hit other kids - Almost no behaviour problems
- No friends. -Refused many class activities - Loads of friends. -Participates in all class activities
Disability leads to poverty in the following ways: Loss of income. -Additional cost of disability
management. -Low expectations in terms of capacity to learn. -Lack of technical and financial support
Poverty Leads to Disability: Poor nutrition and poor body defence against disease. -Poor health due
unaffordable healthcare cost. -Lack of access to basic services that prevent disability. -Un
employment, under-employment and low wage rate
At provincial level, the movement of inclusive education seems losing its momentum because of
two barriers: Attitudes of ordinary school teachers, Attitudes of special education teachers
Attitudes of ordinary school teachers: Firstly, they feel that they are not fully competent and
supported for this major shift and it will be difficult to create a welcoming environment for children with
special needs even if they are really willing to do it. Secondly, the public school is already under
furious criticism for its extremely low educational standards. The inclusion of special children will
further deteriorate the quality of instruction and the school may collapse.
Attitudes of Special Education Teachers: They argue that special needs children require a type of
“clinical care” that will never be possible in a free and least restricted environment of public school.
-They fear that in case the inclusive education is successfully implemented in Pakistan, they will be
out of jobs.
Challenges in Education System - 1: Challenge No 1 - Low level of literacy, Challenge no 2 -
Access to basic education
Some major factors for low enrolment are: Poverty, Long distance from school, Poor physical
infrastructure, Functional problems.
Challenges in Education System - 2: Challenge no 3: Schools’ curriculum is static, inert and non-
responsive to the socio-economic needs both nationally and internally:
Challenges in Education System - 3: Challenge no 4: To evolve an integrated system of national
education by bringing Deni madras and modern schools closer to mainstream especially in curriculum
and the scheme of studies. Challenge no 5 - Financial constrains
Challenges in Education System - 4: Challenges no 6 - Public private partnership. Challenge no 7
- Rampant un-employment among the educated youth
Challenges in Education System - 5: Revamping of science education by improving science
laboratories provision of science equipment. Challenge no 8: Need for strong management
information system (MIS). Challenge no 9: Promote gender equality and women empowerment
Challenges in Education System – 6: Challenge no 10: Quality Assurance. Challenge no 11: to
develop monitoring and evaluation mechanism

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