1. What is cryptography?

Cryptography aids to secure information from third parties who are called adversaries. It
allows only the sender and the recipient to access the data securely.

2. What is traceroute? Mention its uses.

Traceroute is a network diagnostic tool. It helps track the route taken by a packet that is sent
across the IP network. It shows the IP addresses of all the routers it pinged between the
source and the destination.

Uses:

 It shows the time taken by the packet for each hop during the transmission.
 When the packet is lost during the transmission, the traceroute will identify where the
point of failure is.

3. What is a firewall? Mention its uses.

A firewall is a network security device/system, which blocks malicious traffic such as

hackers, worms, malware, and viruses.

Uses:

 It monitors the incoming and outgoing network traffic. It permits or allows only data
packets that agree to the set of security rules.
 It acts as a barrier between the internal network and the incoming traffic from external
sources like the Internet.

4. What is a three-way handshake?

It is a process that happens in a TCP/IP network when you make a connection between a
local host and the server. It is a three-step process to negotiate acknowledgment and
synchronization of packets before communication starts.
 
 Step 1: The client makes a connection with the server with SYN.
 Step 2: The server responds to the client request with SYN+ACK.
 Step 3: The client acknowledges the server’s response with ACK, and the actual data
transmission begins.

5. What is a response code? List them.

HTTP response codes indicate a server’s response when a client makes a request to the
server. It shows whether an HTTP request is completed or not.

1xx: Informational

The request is received, and the process is continuing. Some example codes are:

 100 (continue)
 101 (switching protocol)
 102 (processing)
 103 (early hints)

2xx: Success

The action is received, understood, and accepted successfully. A few example codes for this
are:

 200 (OK)
 202 (accepted)
 205 (reset content)
 208 (already reported)

3xx: Redirection
To complete the request, further action is required to take place. Example codes:

 300 (multiple choice)

 302 (found)
 308 (permanent redirect)

4xx: Client Error

The request has incorrect syntax, or it is not fulfilled. Here are the example codes for this:

 400 (bad request)

 403 (forbidden)
 404 (not found)

5xx: Server Error

The server fails to complete a valid request. Example codes for this are:

 500 (internal server error)

 502 (bad gateway)
 511 (network authentication required)

6. What is the CIA triad?

It is a security model to ensure IT security. CIA stands for confidentiality, integrity, and
availability.

 Confidentiality: To protect sensitive information from unauthorized access.

 Integrity: To protect data from deletion or modification by an unintended person.
 Availability: To confirm the availability of the data whenever needed.

7. What are the common cyberattacks?

Here is a list of common cyberattacks aimed at inflicting damage to a system.

1. Man in the Middle: The attacker puts himself in the communication between the sender
and the receiver. This is done to eavesdrop and impersonate to steal data.
2. Phishing: Here, the attacker will act as a trusted entity to perform malicious activities
such as getting usernames, passwords, and credit card numbers.
3. Rogue Software: It is a fraudulent attack where the attacker fakes a virus on the target
device and offers an anti-virus tool to remove the malware. This is done to install
malicious software into the system.
4. Malware: Malware is a software that is designed to attack the target system. The
software can be a virus, worm, ransomware, spyware, and so on.
5. Drive-by Downloads: The hacker takes advantage of the lack of updates on the OS, app,
or browser, which automatically downloads malicious code to the system.
6. DDoS: This is done to overwhelm the target network with massive traffic, making it
impossible for the website or the service to be operable.
7. Malvertising: Malvertising refers to the injections of maleficent code to legitimate
advertising networks, which redirect users to unintended websites.
8. Password Attacks: As the name suggests, here, the cyber hacker cracks credentials like
passwords

8. What is data leakage?

Data leakage means the unauthorized transmission of data from an organization to an external
recipient. The mode of transmission can be electronic, physical, web, email, mobile data, and
storage devices, such as USB keys, laptops, and optical media.

Types of data leakage:

 Accidental leakage: The authorized entity sends data to an unauthorized entity

accidentally.
 Malicious insiders: The authorized entity intentionally sends data to an unauthorized
entity.
 Electronic communication: Hackers make use of hacking tools to intrude the system.

9. Explain port scanning.

A port scan helps you determine the ports that are open, listening, or closed on a network.
Administrators use this to test network security and the system’s firewall strength. For
hackers, it is a popular reconnaissance tool to identify the weak point to break into a system.
Some of the common basic port scanning techniques are:

1. UDP
2. Ping scan
3. TCP connect
4. TCP half-open
5. Stealth scanning

10. Explain brute force attack and the ways to prevent it.

A brute force attack is a hack where the attacker tries to guess the target password by trial and
error. It is mostly implemented with the help of automated software used to login with
credentials.

Here are some ways to prevent a brute force attack:

1. Set a lengthy password

2. Set a high-complexity password
3. Set a limit for login failures

11. Explain the difference between hashing and encryption.

Hashing Encryption
A one-way function where you cannot Encrypted data can be decrypted to the original
decrypt the original message text with a proper key
Used to verify data Used to transmit data securely
Used to send files, passwords, etc. and to Used to transfer sensitive business information
search

12. What is the difference between vulnerability assessment (VA) and penetration
testing (PT)?

Vulnerability Assessment (VA) Penetration Testing (PT)

Identifies the vulnerabilities in a network Identifies vulnerabilities to exploit them to
penetrate the system
Tells how susceptible the network is Tells whether the detected vulnerability is
genuine
Conducted at regular intervals when there is a Conducted annually when there are significant
change in the system or network changes introduced into the system

13. Mention the steps to set up a firewall.

Following are the steps you have to follow to set up a firewall:

1. Username/password: Alter the default password of a firewall device.

2. Remote Administration: Always disable the Remote Administration feature.
3. Port Forward: For the web server, FTP, and other applications to work properly,
configure appropriate ports.
4. DHCP Server: Disable the DHCP server when you install a firewall to avoid conflicts.
5. Logging: Enable logs to view the firewall troubleshoots and to view logs.
6. Policies: Configure strong security policies with the firewall.

14. What is SSL encryption?

Secure Socket Layer is a security protocol that is used for the purpose of encryption. It
ensures privacy, data integrity, and authentication in the network like online transactions.

The following are the steps for setting up an SSL encryption:

1. A browser connects to an SSL-secured web server.

2. The browser requests the server’s public key in exchange for its own private key.
3. If it is trustworthy, the browser requests to establish an encrypted connection with the
web server.
4. The web server sends the acknowledgment to start an SSL encrypted connection.
5. SSL communication starts to take place between the browser and the web server.

15. What steps will you take to secure a server?

A server that is secured uses the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol to encrypt and decrypt
data to protect it from unauthorized access.

Below are the four steps to secure a server:

Step 1: Secure the root and administrator users with a password

Step 2: Create new users who will manage the system

Step 3: Do not give remote access to administrator/default root accounts

Step 4: Configure firewall rules for remote access

16. What is the difference between HIDS and NIDS?

Host Intrusion Detection System Network Intrusion Detection System

Detects the attacks that involve hosts Detects attacks that involve networks
Analyzes what a particular Examines the network traffic of all devices
host/application is doing
Discovers hackers only after the machine Discovers hackers at the time they generate
is breached unauthorized attacks

17. Mention the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption.

Differentiator Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption

Encryption Key Only one key to encrypt and Two different keys (public and private keys) to
decrypt a message encrypt and decrypt the message
Speed of Encryption is faster and Encryption is slower and complicated
Execution simple
Algorithms RC4, AES, DES, and 3DES RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and ECC
Usage For the transmission of For smaller transmission to establish a secure
large chunks of data connection prior to the actual data transfer

18. What is the difference between IDS and IPS?

 Intrusion Detection System Intrusion Prevention System
A network infrastructure to detect A network infrastructure to prevent intrusions by
intrusion by hackers hackers
Flags invasion as threads Denies the malicious traffic from threads
Detects port scanners, malware, and Does not deliver malicious packets if the traffic is
other violations from known threats in databases

19. What are the different layers of the OSI model?

It is a model introduced by the International Organization for Standardization for different

computer systems to communicate with each other using standard protocols.

 Physical layer: This layer allows the transmission of raw data bits over a physical
medium.
 Data link layer: This layer determines the format of the data in the network.
 Network layer: It tells which path the data will take.
 Transport layer: This layer allows the transmission of data using TCP/UDP protocols.
 Session layer: It controls sessions and ports to maintain the connections in the network.
 Presentation layer: Data encryptions happen in this layer, and it ensures if the data is in
usable/presentable format.
 Application layer: This is where the user interacts with the application.

20. What is a VPN?

VPN stands for virtual private network. It is a private network that gives you online
anonymity and privacy from a public Internet connection. VPN helps you protect your online
activities, such as sending an email, paying bills, or shopping online.

How does a VPN work?

1. When you make a VPN connection, your device routes the Internet connection to the
VPN’s private server, instead of your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
2. During this transmission, your data is encrypted and sent through another point on the
Internet.
3. When it reaches the server, the data is decrypted.
4. The response from the server reaches the VPN where it is encrypted, and it will be
decrypted by another point in the VPN.
5. At last, the data, which is decrypted, reaches you.

21. What do you understand by risk, vulnerability, and threat in a network?

 Threat: A threat can cause potential harm to an organization’s assets by exploiting a

vulnerability. It can be intentional or accidental.
 Vulnerability: A vulnerability is a weakness or a gap in the security system that can be
taken advantage of by a malicious hacker.
 Risk: A risk happens when the threat exploits a vulnerability. It results in loss,
destruction, or damage to the asset.

22. How do you prevent identity theft?

To prevent identity theft, you can take the following measures:

1. Protect your personal records.

2. Avoid online sharing of confidential information.
3. Protect your Social Security Number.
4. Use strong passwords, and change them at regular intervals.
5. Do not provide your bank information on untrustworthy websites.
6. Protect your system with advanced firewall and spyware tools.
7. Keep your browsers, system, and software updated.
23. Who are White Hat, Grey Hat, and Black Hat Hackers?

BlackHatHackers
A Black Hat Hacker uses his/her hacking skills to breach confidential data without
permission. With the obtained data, the individual performs malicious activities such as
injecting malware, viruses, and worms.

WhiteHatHackers
A White Hat Hacker uses his/her hacking skills to break into a system but with the
permission of the respective organizations. They are professionals known as Ethical Hackers.
They hack the system to identify its vulnerability and to fix it before a hacker takes advantage
of it.

GreyHatHackers
A Grey Hat Hacker has the characteristics of both a Black Hat Hacker and a White Hat
Hacker. Here, the system is violated with no bad intention, but they do not have the essential
permission to surf the system, so it might become a potential threat at any time.

24. When should you do patch management, and how often?

Patch management has to be done immediately once the updates to the software is released.
All the network devices in the organization should get patch management in less than a
month.

25. What are the ways to reset a password-protected BIOS configuration?

BIOS being hardware, setting it up with a password locks the operating system. There are
three ways to reset the BIOS password:

1. you need to unplug the PC and remove the CMOS battery in the cabinet for 15–30
minutes. Then, you can put it back.
2. You can use third-party software such as CmosPwd and Kiosk.
3. You can run the below commands from the MS-DOS prompt with the help of the debug
tool. For this method to work, you need to have access to the OS installed.

Debug

o 70 2E
o 71 FF

quit

This will reset all BIOS configurations, and you need to re-enter the settings for it.

26. Explain the MITM attack. How to prevent it?

In the Man-in-the-Middle attack, the hacker eavesdrops on the communication between two
parties. The individual then impersonates another person and makes the data transmission
look normal for the other parties. The intent is to alter the data, steal personal information, or
get login credentials for sabotaging communication.

These are a few ways to prevent an MITM attack:

1. Public key pair based authentication

2. Virtual private network
3. Strong router login credentials
4. Implement well built Intrusion Detection System(IDS) like firewalls.
5. Strong WEP/WPA encryption on access points

27. Explain the DDoS attack. How to prevent it?

Distributed denial-of-service attack overwhelms the target website, system, or network with
huge traffic, more than the server’s capacity. The aim is to make the server/website
inaccessible to its intended users. DDoS happens in the below two ways:

Flooding attacks: This is the most commonly occurring type of DDoS attack. Flooding
attacks stop the system when the server is accumulated with massive amounts of traffic that it
cannot handle. The attacker sends packets continuously with the help of automated software.

Crash attacks: This is the least common DDoS attack where the attacker exploits a bug in
the targeted system to cause a system crash. It prevents legitimate users from accessing email,
websites, banking accounts, and gaming sites.

To prevent a DDoS attack, you have to:

1. Configure firewalls and routers

2. Recognize the spike in traffic
3. Consider front-end hardware
4. Empower the server with scalability and load balancing
5. Use anti-DDoS software

28. Explain the XSS attack. How to prevent it?

Cross-site scripting also known as XSS attack allows the attacker to pretend as a victim user
to carry out the actions that the user can perform, in turn, stealing any of the user’s data. If the
attacker can masquerade as a privileged victim user, one can gain full control over all the
application’s data and functionality. Here, the attacker injects malicious client-side code into
web services to steal information, run destructive code, take control of a user’s session, and
perform a phishing scam.

Here are the ways to prevent an XSS attack:

1. Cross-check user’s input

2. Sanitize HTML
3. Employ anti-XSS tools
4. Use encoding
5. Check for regular updates of the software

29. What is an ARP, and how does it work?

Address Resolution Protocol is a communication protocol of the network layer in the OSI
model. Its function is to find the MAC address for the given IP address of the system. It
converts the IPv4 address, which is 32-bit, into a 48-bit MAC address.

How ARP works:

1. It sends an ARP request that broadcasts frames to the entire network.

2. All nodes on the network receive the ARP request.
3. The nodes check whether the request matches with the ARP table to find the target’s
MAC address.
4. If it does not match, then the nodes silently discard the packet.
5. If it matches, the target will send an ARP response back to the original sender via
unicast.
30. What is port blocking within LAN?

It refers to restricting users from accessing a set of services within the local area network.
The main aim is to stop the source from providing access to destination nodes via ports. Since
all applications run on the ports, it is necessary to block the ports to restrict unauthorized
access, which might violate the security vulnerability in the network infrastructure.

31. What are the protocols that fall under the TCP/IP Internet layer?

Application NFS, NIS, SNMP, telnet, ftp, rlogin, rsh, rcp, RIP, RDISC, DNS, LDAP,
Layer and others
Transport Layer TCP, SCTP, UDP, etc.
Internet IPv4, ARP, ICMP, IPv6, etc.
Data Link Layer IEEE 802.2, PPP, etc.
Physical Layer Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), FDDI, Token Ring, RS-232, and others

32. What is a botnet?

A botnet, which is also known as a robot network, is a malware that infects networks of
computers and gets them under the control of a single attacker who is called a ‘bot herder.’ A
bot is an individual machine that is under the control of bot herders. The attacker acts as a
central party who can command every bot to perform simultaneous and coordinated criminal
actions.

The botnet is a large-scale attack since a bot herder can control millions of bots at a time. All
the botnets can receive updates from the attacker to change their behavior in no time.

33. What are salted hashes?

When two users have the same password, it will result in the creation of the same password
hashes. In such a case, an attacker can easily crack the password by performing a dictionary
or brute-force attack. To avoid this, a salted hash is implemented.

A salted hash is used to randomize hashes by prepending or appending a random string (salt)
to the password before hashing. This results in the creation of two completely different
hashes, which can be employed to protect the users’ passwords in the database against the
attacker.

34. Explain SSL and TLS.

SecureSocketsLayer(SSL)
It employs encryption algorithms to keep any sensitive data that is sent between a client and a
server by scrambling the data in transit. This helps prevent hackers from reading any data,
such as credit card details and personal and other financial information; it is done by keeping
the Internet connection secure.

TransportLayerSecurity(TLS)
TLS is the successor of SSL. It is an improved version protocol that works just like SSL to
protect the information transfer. However, to provide better security, both TLS and SSL are
often implemented together.

35. What is data protection in transit vs data protection at rest?

Data Protection in Transit Data Protection at Rest

Data is transmitted across devices or networks Data is stored in databases, local hard
drives, or USBs
Protects the data in transit with SSL and TLS Protects the data at rest with firewalls,
antiviruses, and good security practices
You must protect the data in transit since it can You should protect the data at rest to avoid
become vulnerable to MITM attacks, possible data breaches even when stolen or
eavesdropping, etc. downloaded

36. What is 2FA, and how can it be implemented for public websites?

Two-factor authentication (2FA) requires a password, along with a unique form of

identification like a login code via text message (SMS) or a mobile application, to verify a
user. When the user enters the password, he/she is prompted for the security code to log in to
the website. If the code mismatches, the user will be blocked from entering the website.

Examples of 2FA: Google Authenticator, YubiKey, Microsoft Authenticator, etc.

37. What do you mean by Cognitive Cybersecurity?

Cognitive Cybersecurity is a way of using human-like thought mechanisms and converting

them to be used by Artificial Intelligence technologies to detect security threats. It is to
impart human knowledge to the cognitive system, which will be able to serve as a self-
learning system. This helps identify the threats, determine their impact, and manifest reactive
strategies.

38. What is the difference between VPN and VLAN?

Virtual Private Network Virtual Local Area Network

Provides secure remote access to a Used to group multiple computers that are
company’s network resources geographically in different domains into the same
geographical broadcast domain
A network service A way of subnetting the network
Companies wishing to connect with Companies wishing to employ traffic control and easier
their remote employees will use a management will use a VLAN
VPN

39. Explain phishing. How to prevent it?

In phishing, an attacker masquerades as a trusted entity (as a legitimate person/company) to

obtain sensitive information by manipulating the victim. It is achieved by any kind of user
interaction, such as asking the victim to click on a malicious link and to download a risky
attachment, to get confidential information such as credit card information, usernames,
passwords, and network credentials.

The following are some of the ways to prevent phishing:

1. Install firewalls
2. Rotate passwords frequently
3. Do not click on or download from unknown sources
4. Get free anti-phishing tools
5. Do not provide your personal information on an unsecured/unknown site
40. Explain SQL injection. How to prevent it?

SQL injection is an injection attack where an attacker executes malicious SQL commands in
the database server, including MySQL, SQL Server, or Oracle, that runs behind a web
application. The intent is to gain unauthorized access to sensitive data such as client
information, personal information, intellectual property details, and so on. In this attack, the
attacker can add, modify, and delete records in the database, which results in the data
integrity loss of an organization.

Ways to prevent SQL injection:

1. Limit providing read access to the database

2. Sanitize data with the limitation of special characters
3. Validate user inputs
4. Use prepared statements
5. Check for active updates and patches