UNDERSTANDING

BASIC AUDIO

by Brett Armstrong
THE MOST BASIC SOUND SYSTEM IS A MIC PLUGGED INTO A SPEAKER. FROM THERE,
IT GETS MORE COMPLICATED. You need to understand the flow of sound and how
your gear enables you to adjust that flow in different ways. But don't worry —
you’re in the right place. This guide was designed to get you up and running.

SIGNAL FLOW
The most important skill a live sound engineer must have is a solid understanding
of signal flow; you must know where the signal — and by that I mean the source of
sound — is coming from, where it needs to go and how to get it there. To do that, you
need to understand how all the pieces of the sound system work together.

Gain

Filter

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MIXING CONSOLE
The console is command central, where you receive inputs (instruments,
mics, etc.), process and combine their “content,” and then
route the results to the proper outputs. Every console is
different, but they all serve the same function.

Each input goes into a channel on the mixer. (One channel

may be a lead singer, another might be a synthesizer, another
could be backup vocals, etc.). You then change the channels’
signals with processors. Consoles often include semi-
parametric three-band EQ on every channel and several also
include effects (FX), as well — and others are available
through outboard processors — gates, compressors and
dedicated FX units, for instance. An AUX (for auxiliary)

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output is usually for sending a signal to those outboard processors, and there
are added outputs for stage monitors and in-ear monitors (IEMs).

After signal processing, all channels are eventually routed to the main stereo
outputs and sent to the sound system (amps, speakers) for the audience to hear.
First, though, you need to connect the console to the speakers.

GRAPHIC EQUALIZERS
Console Main Outputs → GEQs

Graphic equalizers (GEQs) are used to correct the frequency response of a speaker.
Connect the main outputs of your console to the GEQ and use it to “tune the room”
or correct problem frequencies caused by standing waves in the room (reflections).

When using stage monitors, connect each AUX output to a GEQ channel before
sending the signal to the stage. This enables you to “ring out” the monitors or
cut frequencies likely to cause feedback.

CROSSOVERS (FOR PASSIVE SPEAKERS)

Console Main Outputs → GEQs → Crossover

Crossovers are devices that split your audio signal in two — low frequencies go to
subwoofers and everything else goes to the main speakers. Plug the main outputs
of your console into the GEQ, then plug the outputs of the GEQ into the inputs of the
crossover. Set the frequency where you’d like to split the signals, then connect the
“low” outputs to the power amps for the subs and the “high” outputs to the power
amps for the main speakers.

Some crossovers include three-way splitting for low, mid and high speakers, but
these are typically found on more advanced systems. Active (powered) speakers
have built-in crossovers so there’s no need for an outboard unit.

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POWER AMPLIFIERS (FOR PASSIVE SPEAKERS)
Console Main Outputs → GEQs → Crossover → Power Amps

Power amps have one job: supply power to passive speakers. There’s nothing fancy
about them. Their only control is volume output. There are engineers who choose to
run their power amps at full blast, although if not correctly gain staged, this could
lead to a low signal-to-noise ratio. Power amps are vital to your sound system. If
you use the wrong amp, the speakers could blow, the amp could catch fire, or both!
To properly pair speakers and power amps, you need to know the following:

• Amp impedance

• Amp power

• Speaker impedance

• Speaker power

Ohms measure resistance (impedance) and tell us how resistant the power amps and
speakers are to electricity. Always make sure that the speakers and power amps have
the same ohm rating (8 ohm, 4 ohm, 2 ohm) running parallel or in series.

Power is measured in watts and sometimes referred to as program, continuous or

root-mean-square (RMS) power rating. This is the continuous music power that the
amp can deliver. You must use an amp that is 50% more powerful than your speakers.
For instance, if you’re using two 8-ohm, 1,000-watt speakers, you’ll need two 8-ohm,
1500-watt power amps or a single 8-ohm, 2-channel, 3,000-watt power amp.

After connecting your crossover outputs to the power amps, finish the chain by
connecting the power amps to the speakers. Active speakers have built-in amps, so
there’s no need for outboard amp units.

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MAIN SPEAKERS
Console Main Outputs → GEQs → Crossover → Power Amps → Main Speakers

Speakers are the end of your signal chain — the last stop before all this electricity
turns back into music. Speakers come in two basic types: active and passive.

Active speakers are powered — there’s an amp built in. All you need to do is plug
the power cable into the wall to turn them on. These are available from small to
large speakers. To connect active speakers to your console, run an XLR or tip-
ring-sleeve (TRS) signal cable from the main outputs of the GEQ to the inputs
on the speakers.

Passive speakers are unpowered. They require a connection to an external power

amp to turn on. These are very common in permanent installations. To connect
passive speakers to your console, run an XLR signal cable from the main outputs
of the GEQ to the inputs on your crossovers and then to the amps. Now connect
the power amps’ outputs to the speakers’ inputs using 1/4-inch tip-sleeve (TS)
or Speakon® cables.

SUBWOOFERS
Console Main Outputs → GEQs → Crossover → Power Amps → Subwoofers

Systems can include multiple subwoofers for extra low-end reinforcement. If you
use two or fewer active subwoofers, simply route the console’s main outputs to the
subwoofers’ inputs then use the “thru” outputs to connect the subwoofers to the
active “tops” — or main speakers — using XLRs.

Active subwoofers include built-in crossovers — devices that split your signal in
two. If you’re using passive speakers, you need an outboard crossover.

If you use more than two subwoofers, you’ll need a speaker management system.
These usually include lots of digital signal processors (DSP), such as EQ,
compressors, limiters and stereo imagers. Most importantly, they allow you to split
a stereo signal into eight or more outputs, which gives you the freedom to include
multiple subs.

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MONITORS
Console Main Outputs → GEQs → Power Amps → Monitors

Now that you have the sound system up and running, it’s time to connect the stage
monitors so the band can hear itself. Stage monitors are connected essentially in the
same way as the main speakers, but they use the AUX outputs instead of the main
outputs. Each stage monitor needs its own GEQ and AUX send. Start at the
console and connect the AUX outputs to the GEQs using XLR or TRS cables. Then
connect the GEQs to the amps using the same type of cables. Finally, connect the
power amps to the monitors using TS or Speakon cables. Active stage monitors
have built-in power amps so there’s no need for outboard amps.

For IEMs, use a system where you connect the AUX output to the input on the IEM
mixer. Each musician can then adjust their mix using the compatible controller.

TURNING THE SYSTEM ON

Now that everything’s connected, you just need to turn it all on. Always start at the
beginning of the signal chain — the console. Then simply follow the chain down
the line. Boot up the GEQs next, followed by the crossover and any added
processing. The last things to turn on are the power amps/speakers; if you turn
them on earlier, you’ll hear a nasty pop.

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CHANNEL STRIPS
Mixing consoles can be intimidating, have a ton of channels, dozens of knobs,
buttons and touch screens, and more LED lights than an average Christmas tree.
The main takeaway is that if you can understand how one channel strip works,
you can understand how roughly 80% of the console works.

Aside from the center — or “master” — section, the rest of the console works
the same as channel one. If you’re accustomed to mixing in a digital audio
workstation (DAW), you’ll be pleased to see that the channel strips are laid out
almost the same way on the console, and while every console is a little different,
they all work in essentially the same way.

1. PREAMP / GAIN
It all starts with the input preamp. Whether you’re plugging mics directly into the
back of the board or using a “stage snake” to feed the signals from the stage, the
first step is amplifying the mic using the gain knob on the console.

While we’re on the subject, what exactly is gain? First of all, let’s talk about what
gain isn’t. Gain is not volume. To increase the signal volume, you reach for the
channel fader, not the gain knob. Gain, on the other hand, controls mic or channel
sensitivity. It increases the intensity of what the microphone can “hear” and is used
to dial in the proper intensity of each mic or instrument. Too much gain and the
signal can clip and distort. Too little gain and the signal feels weak and noisy.

To set the gain for a channel, have a musician play their instrument, and, with the
channel fader down, slowly turn up the gain knob until you hit the console’s “sweet
spot.” Every console is different, but this is usually where signal lights turn from
green to yellow or orange. Just make sure you keep it out of the red!

After setting the gain levels, slowly bring up the channel fader until the instrument
is at the proper volume in the main speakers for the room.

2. INSERTS
From here, the signal typically travels through the “insert” section, where you
can connect outboard processors (like gates and compressors) before running
through the EQ section. Most consoles have a pre/post button that allows you to
move the insert point before or after the EQ.

On most large-format
consoles, channels have
a 1/4-inch “insert send”
output to send the signal
to the processor and a
1/4-inch “insert return” input to receive the processed signal. Some compact
consoles use a single 1/4-inch Y-cable insert point, which has three ends: one that
plugs into the insert point on the back of the console, one that plugs into the input
of the processor (send) and one that plugs into the output of the processor (return).

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3. EQ
Up next is the EQ section. Most consoles are outfitted with semi-parametric EQ,
which sounds intimidating but really shouldn’t. You’ll typically have fixed low and
high bands with adjustable gain and frequencies. Occasionally, there will be a
button to switch between a bell and a shelf shape.

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+6

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Next, you’ll have bell-shaped low-mid and high-mid bands with fully adjustable
gain, frequency and Q (bandwidth) parameters.

Finally, there’s usually a fixed high-pass filter switch set to a specific slope and
frequency (usually around 80 Hz). This is mainly used for vocal mics.

4. AUX SENDS
Next, your signal runs through the AUX send
section. Most consoles have four or more AUX
sends, which can duplicate signals and route them
to one of two places: monitors or FX processors
(like reverb or delay).

To send a signal to an AUX send, simply find the

AUX send section of the desired channel and turn
up the send to the corresponding AUX channel.

Ensure the AUX Outputs on the back of the mixing console are connected to the
correct monitors and/or FX processors.

Remember, when using outboard FX processors, you can send a signal from the
AUX sends, but if you want to hear the effect, you need to return it as well. Most
consoles have dedicated Stereo AUX returns specifically for FX, although any
channel input will do.

There’s also an AUX Master section on the console, which has a Master volume
control for each AUX send just in case you have the balance right but need a little
more or less volume overall. Make sure it’s turned up (typically to unity), or you won’t
be sending any signal.

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5. PAN KNOB, FADER AND ROUTING BUTTONS
Next are the pan pot, volume fader and routing assignment buttons.

Aside from panning stereo signals left and right, there’s no real need for
panning live sound. Sure, there are engineers who choose to tilt their toms a
little this way or move a keyboard over there to get it out of the way in a busy
mix, but overall, most signals are panned in the center. Panning makes sense
when everyone is wearing headphones, but when everyone in the room has a
different place in the stereo spectrum, it starts to cause more problems than it’s
worth.

The next piece of the channel strip is the fader. Get to know how the fader feels
under your fingers. Become one with the fader.

From there, you need to tell the signal where to go. Most consoles usually have
buttons (M, 1+2, 3+4, etc.) next to each fader, allowing you to send the signal to
the mains and/or one or more subgroups.

Often, engineers use channel strips to process individual signals and subgroups
to balance the mix, which is easier than pulling up eight mics simultaneously
during the drum solo. By routing similar signals to subgroups (like drums, bass,
guitars, vocals, etc.), you can balance levels by controlling multiple mics at
once, leaving your other hand free to mix FX, run lights or fight off droves of
sound groupies. (We techs can always dream, right?)

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BOARD MIX
While every engineer does things a little differently, below is an example of what a
typical board mix might look like, including common microphone options, inserts
and AUX sends. For demonstration purposes, we’ll assume you’re working with a
four-piece band: drums, bass, one guitar and keyboards, plus three vocalists.
There are three stage monitors: stage left, center stage and stage right. They’re
connected to AUX 1 thru 3, respectively. You also have two FX processors: one for
reverb and one for delay. The reverb unit is connected to AUX four.

This template won’t work for every band but use it as a starting point or a reference
guide when setting up, and you should be prepared for most services.

Set your stage inputs to the console as you see them on stage, starting from your
left to your right.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Active Speakers: Powered speakers, also known as self-powered speakers, are
loudspeakers with built-in amplifiers. They can be connected directly to a mixing
console or other low-level audio signal sources without an external amplifier.

AUX: An AUX send is an output used on most live sound and recording mixers. It
allows you to create an “auxiliary” mix in which you have individual-level control
over each input channel on your mixer to your AUX send output. This enables you to
add effects to an output or channel on your mixer.

Cue: This option on a mixer essentially allows a chosen track to be played in your
monitor headphones.

DAW: A digital audio workstation is an electronic device or application software for

recording, editing and producing audio files.

DI: Direct boxes are often referred to as DI — or “direct injection” — boxes. Their
primary purpose is to convert unbalanced and/or high-impedance instrument
signals into a format suitable for direct connection to a mixing console’s mic input
— without using a microphone.

Gain Stage: Gain staging is the process of managing the relative levels in each step
of an audio signal flow to prevent the introduction of noise and distortion.

Graphic Equalizer (GEQ): This device is used to alter the frequency response
of an audio system using linear filters. Since equalizers adjust the amplitude of
audio signals at particular frequencies, they are, in other words, frequency-specific
volume knobs.

IEM: An in-ear monitor is used in place of monitor speakers, which are placed on
stage in front of band members.

Insert: In audio processing and sound reinforcement, an insert is an access point

built into the mixing console. It allows the audio engineer to add external line-level
devices — such as compressors or FX processors — into the signal flow between the
microphone preamplifier and the mix bus.

Passive Speakers: These loudspeakers do not have a built-in amplifier; they must
be connected to an amplifier through an ordinary speaker wire.

PFL (Pre-Fader Level): A pre fader send simply sends a copy of your track before
the channel fader, while a post fader send will do this after your channel fader.

Pink Noise: A mixture of sound waves with intensity that diminishes proportionally
with frequency, yielding approximately equal energy per octave.

Pre/Post: Pre and post sends are AUX sends; they control the sound sent to objects
like nursery room speakers, stage monitors, or anything other than the main house
speakers. A pre-AUX send delivers the signal out of the mixer BEFORE it passes
through the channel fader (also known as pre-fader).

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Preamp: A “preamplifier,” as the name suggests, prepares the signal from a pickup
or microphone for further amplification.

Q-Value: The “quality factor” defines the bandwidth of frequencies that will
be affected by an equalizer.

Semi-Parametric EQ: Sometimes called pseudo- or quasi-parametric EQ, this is

a parametric equalizer with one or more missing features. This term is sometimes
used to describe a single band of equalization, which generally means a parametric
EQ that does not have a Q control — the Q is fixed.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): A measure that compares the level of the desired
signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power
to noise power, often expressed in decibels.

Solo: Choosing one channel to listen to via headphones.

Speakon: This is a trademarked name for an electrical cable/connector. It is mainly

used in professional audio systems for connecting loudspeakers to amplifiers.
Other manufacturers make compatible products, often under the name “speaker
twist connector.”

Subgroups: Subgroups are groups of channels that you can “pre-mix” together
before sending them to the Master output mix. For instance, if you use multiple
mics for a drum set, you can then combine the channels into a drum subgroup so
you can then control it as if it were one input.

Tip Ring Sleeve (TRS): The parts of the jack plug that the different conductors
connect to. A TRS cable has three conductors vs. the two on a standard guitar
cable. (A guitar cable is a TS or Tip Sleeve cable.)

Unity Gain: This term is used when setting up the balance between pieces
of audio equipment. The idea is that input should equal output, level-wise. Audio
that goes into a device at one level and comes out of that device at the same level
is said to be at unity gain.

XLR: XLR refers to a three-pin locking connector that is used in audio applications.

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