FIRST TERM

2020/2021
 FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK 2020/2021

WEEKS TOPICS

1. Revision of Previous Knowledge

Introduction of Subject Biology as a Science Subject

2-3 Living and non living things

4-5 Classification of living thing

The Cell
6 The typical structure for Plant and Animal cell
Functions of Organelles & Difference between a Plant Cell and Animal Cell

7 Organisation of life and Advantages & Disadvantages of Complexity of Organization in

higher organisms. 6 forms in which cell exist

8 Forms in which Cell Exist.

9-10 Plant Nutrition:- Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis Stage involved; Conditions

Necessary and importance of Photosynthesis Experiment to demonstrate conditions
necessary for photosynthesis Mineral requirement of plants and effects of deficiency

11 Nutrient cycles (Nitrogen, Carbon, water etc.)

12 Animal nutrition (heterotrophic nutrition)

13. Revision and Examination

 WEEK 1
TOPIC: Introduction to Biology
CLASS: SS1
DATE: Monday 16th November – Friday 20th November 2020
PERIODS: 3 Periods
DURATION: 40 mins
AVERAGE AGE: 11 years
REFERENCES:
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the class, the pupils should be able to,
 Define Science and Biology
 List the branches of Biology
 Explain the methods of Biology
 List the Usefulness of Biology
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: The Environment, papers, buildings etc.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT:

STEP 1: BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE SUBJECT

Science is the systematic study of natural phenomena in our environment. It consists of the
accumulated knowledge on any science and applied science subject and the methods by which
discoveries are made.

Biology is however, the branch of science that studies living things or life or plants and Animals.
Biologists are scientist who investigates life.

STEP 2: BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

Biology has several branches as follows
1. Botany:- This is the study of classification, distribution and uses of plants.
2. Zoology:- This is the study of classification, distribution and importance (functions) of
animals.
3. Morphology:- This is the study of external structure of living things
4. Anatomy:- This is the study of internal structure of living things
5. Physiology:- This is the study of how living things function
6. Genetics:- This is the study of how living things inherit characters
7. Cell Biology:- The study of cell structure and functions
8. Micro-Biology: The study of micro-organisms that can not be seen with our naked eyes
9. Ecology:- This is the study of living things in relation to their environment

STEP 3: METHODS OF SCIENCE

Science has its own method of enquiring or finding out commonly called the scientific method or
process. The methods include the following:

1. IDENTIFYING A PROBLEM: - Scientists want to find out facts about many things. This makes
them to be aware of problems which they have to find solution to.
Human beings are faced with various problems, it is left for us to recognize each of these
problems and find a solution to them.
2. OBSERVATION:- This means looking carefully with a view to finding an answer to a question,
using all the senses (sight, hearing, touch, feeling, smell as many as may be applicable)
Instruments where necessary can also be of use for proper observation.

3. HYPOTHESIS:- This is a sensible and reasonable guess which is capable of being tested or
verified

4. EXPERIMENT:- This is the testing of the sensible guess by carrying out different tests like
measurement, classification, drawing, etc.

5. RESULT ANALYSIS: - The result of the experiment will be recorded & compiled. Analyzing
the result and drawing conclusion from the results earlier recorded.

6. GENERALIZATION:- sharing findings through reporting and publishing results.

7. THEORY: - This is the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis. An accepted hypothesis,

which has been found to be repeatedly true within the limits of available evidence, becomes
a theory.

A theory, which has been tested for a long time and found to be consistent with new discoveries,
becomes a law or a principle.

STEP 4: USEFULNESS OF SCIENCE

Man has used science to improve the quality of life. Technology is the application of science for the
benefit of man.

Therefore, Biological science find its application and usefulness in various fields and areas such as
medicine, Agriculture, Genetic Engineering, Food production etc.

The following are few areas of importance of science and technology to mankind.

1. Science and Technology has helped man to understand the structure of his body and now it
works as well as what he needs to keep himself healthy.

2. Science has helped man in the field of medicine in many ways for example, use of
ultrasound scan for detection of nature of several man’s illness, effective drugs are
continuously developed for various diseases e.g. Malaria; some diseases are prevented
through immunization e.g small pox, yellow fever, tuberculosis, polio etc.

3. In agriculture scientific knowledge has helped man to increase food production and improve
food preservation.
4. In communication:- Communication by telephone, radio phones and electronic mail are
possible through science and technology, e.g invention of television, handset (GSM),
electricity etc.

5. Development of household appliance: - This actually helps man to save energy and to do
many things much more quickly. This appliance include washing machines, cookers,
grinders, pressing iron, water heater etc

EVALUATION
1. Define Science and Biology.
2. List 5 usefulness of Science.
3. What do you know about the following?
i. Zoology
ii. Physiology
iii. Microbiology
iv. Ecology
4. Mention the methods of scientific process used in finding out.
5. Explain the third and the seventh step of the process previously mentioned above

ASSIGNMENT
Discuss briefly on the characteristic of living things
 WEEK TWO AND THREE

TOPIC: Living and Non Living Things

CLASS: SS1
DATE: Monday 23rd Novmber – Friday 4th December 2020
PERIODS: 5 Periods
DURATION: 40 mins
AVERAGE AGE: 11 years
REFERENCES:
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the class, the pupils should be able to,
 Define Living and Non Living Things
 List the characteristics of Living Things
 Give examples of Levels of Organization of Life
 Explain the Complexity of Organization in Higher Organisms.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: Plants and Animals in the Environment, papers, buildings etc.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT:

STEP 1: LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

Anything that has life in it is referred to as a living thing. Thus, non-living things have no life in them.
Life can be defined as a state of being alive or the period between birth and death.

STEP 2: CHARACTERISTIC OF LIVING THINGS

The characteristic of living things are as follows:-

1. Movement: All living things move. Movement means a change in position, which could be total
as in the case of animals that move from place to place; or limited as in plants, which carry out
bending movements under certain conditions.

2. Respiration:- This is the breakdown of digested food substances taken in by the organism to
release energy. All living things take in oxygen to allow oxidation to take place in the cell of
living things and give out carbon iv oxide as a product of metabolic activities in the cells.

3. Nutrition:- This is the taking in and use of food by Animals (i.e assimilation of foods) as well as
the taking in of mineral substance and their use by plants

4. Irritability:- This is the ability of a living thing to receive an external stimulus and respond to it.
It can also be explained as the ability of living things to respond to changes in their
environment.

5. Growth: This is the ability of living organism to increase in size. With good feeding, comes an
increase in body mass and height of an organism.

6. Excretion:- This is the removal of the waste products of metabolism. Metabolism is the sum
totals of all the chemical processes which take place within the cells of the body. The
accumulation of waste products can be toxic (poisonous) to the body if not removed.
7. Reproduction:- This is the process by which adult organisms give rise to new individuals of the
same kind. For example, A maize grain germinates in to a maize seedling, which grows into a
maize plant. Likewise, a sheep gives birth to a lamb, which grows into a sheep.
Reproduction is therefore the only means by which a living thing is kept in existence from one
generation to another.

All living things cannot go on carrying out their daily activities forever. They must all eventually die
one day when they grow old. When they die, they will no longer possess any of these
characteristics. Of course, their young ones take their place.

NON LIVING THINGS:- Non-living things do not possesses any of these characteristic above because
they do not have life in them.
STEP 3: ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
Living things consist of both simple and complex organisms. There is an organization arrangement
in living organism which begin from the simplest to the most complex. This is however referred to
as ORGANISATION OF LIFE.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
This is the hierarchy of biological organization which begins with cell organelles to the complex
organism.

LEVEL 1: CELL: The cell is the basic unit of life which consist of macromolecule and organelles. E.g
Blood cells, nerve cells, phloem cells, meristematic cells etc.

LEVEL 2: TISSUES: A tissues consists of similar cell which are differentiated to carry out particular
functions. Example includes bone, muscle, blood, xylem tissue in plants, skeletal etc.

LEVEL 3: ORGANS: Organs are parts of an organism which consist of several types of tissues
carryout specialized function
Examples include leaf, heart, eyes, kidney, skin liver etc.

LEVEL 4: SYSTEM: This is a group of organs that perform related functions. Examples include
circulatory system, root systems, digestive system, shoot system etc.

A combination of various systems performing co-ordinated functions as a whole is known as an

ORGANISMS. Examples include mammals, flowering plants

Life exists in an organized form as explained above so as to carry out the characteristic of living
things efficiently.

A. CELL LEVEL
It is worthy of notice that some living things exists as a cell capable of carrying out all the
characteristic of living things. They have a locomotary structure, they can feed they can pass out
waste etc.

Examples of the organisms are:

1. EUGLENA: Euglena is a unicellular protist which has both plant and animal characteristics.
It is plant-like because it has stellate chloroplasts in its one celled structure. The chloroplasts are
used by the organism to manufacture its food by photosynthesis. It is autotrophic in
nature. It also possess paramylum granule which is a food reserve material for carbohydrate.

Euglena is an animal because of the following.

a. It has no definite cellulose cell wall
b. It has flagellum as an organ of movement. It however moves by whipping action of
its flagellum.
c. The possession of gullet (for food passage), eye spot (sensitive to light), contractile
vacuole (for osmoregulation); pellicle (for excretion of co2) and myoneme.

2. PARAMECIUM: Paramecium is also a unicellular protist. Paramecium feeds

heterotrophically. It has a definite shape because of its fairly rigid cell wall.
- It moves about by means of specialized structures known as cilia.
- It has a definite mouth for feeding and can react faster and move effectively.
- It has contractile vacuole for osmoregulation, the trichocysts for defence, the
macronucleus exercise control over metabolic functions including growth while the
micronucleus is for sexual reproduction.

The food particles are moved by ciliary action into the oral grave which then forms food
vacuole at the base of the gullet. The food vacuoles are circulated round the cytoplasm after
which the undigested food are discharged through the cell anus called the cytoproct.
 B. TISSUE LEVEL
Example of an organism which occur as tissue level of organization is Hydra

1. HYDRA: The hydra is an animal whose body is built up of two layers of cells namely; the
outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm. Separating the two layers is a layer of jelly called
the mesoglea. Other tissues found in hydra are nervous tissues as well as muscular tissues.

C. ORGAN LEVEL
An example of an organism which occurs as organ level of organizations is an Onion Bulb.

1. THE ONION BULB: It consists of two systems called

(a) The shoot system made up of a number of organs namely; a short dome shaped stem,
the leaves and flowers buds.
(b) The root system consisting of number of roots each of which is an organ.
The leaf bases of the onion bulb are thick and fleshy serving as storage organs (store food
and water).
 D. SYSTEM LEVEL
The vertebrates are examples of organisms with systems. They have a number of systems occurring
in their body e.g reproductive, respiratory, excretory, digestive, nervous, skeletal etc. plants also
have the shoot and the root system.

STEP 4: COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ANIMALS

The higher organization in higher organism like vertebrates and the flowering plants (angiosperms
& gymnosperms) makes them to be complex in their organization. Though, man is the most
complex. This is due to the fact that their bodies are differentiated into specialized parts performing
coordinated functions at a time; this actually makes them efficient to carry out various activities of
life. However, there are advantages and disadvantages.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ORGANIZATIONS IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

ADVANTAGES
1. A complex organization makes it possible to have biological division of labour among cells,
organs and systems. For example, in man, the ovaries and testis are specialized for
reproduction; ear for hearing and eyes for sight.
2. The complexity of higher organism has led to their survival in different habitats with
different conditions.
3. Unicellular and simple multi-cellular organisms stop all other activities when they want to
reproduce but complex organisms carryout reproduction along with other activities.
4. Reproduction in complex organisms does not lead to the disintegration of the parents.
Specialized reproductive parts (testes & ovaries) are only involved. In unicellular organism,
the entire parent or parents are involved in reproduction leading to their disintegration.
5. There is efficiency in the functions of organs of the body

DISADVANTAGES
1. In complex organism, diffusion alone is not sufficient to move materials from one part of the
organism to all other areas. A transport system is developed to rectify this problem, but any
failure of the transport system could be fatal to the organism,
2. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently therefore depends on one
another’s activities to exist
3. A system of co-ordination is necessary in a complex organism
4. With complexity, ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.

EVALUATION:
1. Define Living and Non Living Things
2. State the Characteristics of Living Things
3. The levels of organization of life are ________, ________, ________, and ____________
4. Levels of organization can be defined as ___________________
5. Euglena is a plant because of these reasons which include _______________________ and
___________________
6. The organ of movement in Euglena is __________________
7. The contractile vacuole is for _______________________
 8. The pellicle is for ___________________
9. Paramecium uses _____________________ for movement
10.The organ for defence in paramecium is ___________________-
11.Undigested food remains are discharged through ______________ in Paramecium
12. _______ and ______ form the two major tissue in hydra
13. The hydra occurs as a tissue level while _________ occur as an organ level.
14. Briefly define (i) Cell (ii) Tissue (iii) Organ (iv) system (v) Organisms
 WEEK FOUR AND FIVE

TOPIC: The Classification of Living Things

CLASS: SS1
DATE: Monday 7th december – Friday 18th December 2020
PERIODS: 5 Periods
DURATION: 40 mins
AVERAGE AGE: 11 years
REFERENCES:
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the class, the pupils should be able to,
 Explain the Classififcation of Living Things.
 List the hierarchy of groups used in classifying Living Things
 List the Basis for the Classification of Living Things.
 Explain the following: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic Cells
Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Autothrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms
 Mention the 5 Kingdom Classififcation of Living Things.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: The Environment, papers, buildings etc.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT:

STEP 1: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification is the grouping of living things into their kings on the basis of similarities. The science
of Biological classification is called TAXONOMY OF LIVING THINGS. The system of naming is based
on the one introduced by a Swedish Naturalist, Carolous Linnaeus (1707 – 1778).

STEP 2: HIERARCHY OF GROUPS USED IN CLASSIFICATIONOF LIVING THINGS

The grouping of organisms involves the assembling of organism that are related together and which
can interbreed freely to produce offspring. The grouping is as follows:-
KINGDOM:- This is the highest level of the taxonomic groups. It is divided into animal kingdom for
animals and plant kingdom for plants

PHYLUM OR DIVISION (PLANTS): Organisms of the same structure body plane are grouped into the
same phylum.

CLASS:- These are group of related order and are put into a class

ORDER:- This consists of families of organisms of common characteristic which are classified as
members of the same order

FAMILY:- This consists of group of related general

GENERAL:- A group of related species form a genius (plural general)

SPECIES:- This is a group of assemblage of organism within which inter-breeding occurs freely.
Linnaeus also introduced a system of naming living things which Biologist use today. It is called the
Binomial system of Nomenclature.
In this system, each organism is given two names:
The first name is the genius or generic name which starts with a capital letter, the second name is
the species or specific name which starts with small letter.

Both the generic and the specific names are underline separately when written or typed. When
printed they are italicized.
Examples include the following
Common Scientific name
1. Water leaf Talinum triangulare
2. Housefly Musca domestica
3. Man Homo sapien
4. Okra Hibiscus esculentus
5. Groundnut Arachis hypogeal
6. Maize Zea mays
7. Rice Oryza sativa
8. Dog Canics familaris
9. Cat Felis domesticus
Living things can be classified into their different groups by adopting “THE
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION”

STEP 3: THE BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Living things are classified based on the following features,

1. The complexity of cell structure (i.e whether it is prokaryotic or eukaryotic)
Prokaryotic:- The cell has no organized nucleus with nuclear enveloped. The nuclear materials in
the nucleus are naked.
Eukaryotic:- It consist of nucleus with nuclear enveloped that is the nuclear materials are not
naked.

2. The complexity of the organism’ body (i.e unicellular, multicellular and complex)

3. Mode of nutrition:- Whether the organism can produce its food by itself (autotrophic) or the
organism depends on other organisms for food (heterotrophic)

STEP 4: THE 5 KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

The five kingdoms Classification of Living Things are:-

1. KINGDOM MONERA
2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
3. KINGDOM FUNGI
4. KINGDOM PLANTAE
5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Viruses are not included in the classification because they have some characteristic of living things
as well as non living things. They are extremely small and can be seen through electron micro-
scope, it does not have a cell structure but it is just made up of a coiled strand of nucleic acid
enclosed within a protein coat. It can only produce inside a living cell (obligate parasite) it exist as a
crystal and not different from a non-living thing. There economy important is that they cause
diseases in plants and animals.

Scientist are not yet certain about the evolutionary origin of a virus.

KINGDOM 1 – MONERA
They are the simplest organism. Examples of organisms here are bacteria and blue-green algae.
General Characteristics
1. They are unicellular organisms
2. They are prokaryotic in nature
3. The cell wall does not contains cellulose, but polysaccharides and amino acids are
present
4. They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic
5. They are motile or non-motile

FIG 1:- The diagram of a bacterium cell

Bacteria are found in air, water, soil and living organism and can only be seen through a light micro-
scope. They range in size from 0.1 to 10 m in length. They are spherical or rod-like in shape,
bacteria maybe motile or non-motile, the motile ones have a whip-like structure called Flagella
which enable them to move about in water.

Few bacteria make their own food while most bacteria are saprophytes i.e they breakdown food
present in dead organism and absorb it, they cause dead organism to decompose which is and
important process in nature. They produce by binary fission, a type of asexual reproduction.
Bacteria are of great economic important
 Harmful Bacteria cause diseases in plants and animals including human
 Useful Bacteria bring about decay and improve soil fertility

KINGDOM 2:- PROTISTA

Examples of organisms here are Amoeba, trypanosome, euglena, paramecium etc.
General Characteristics
 1. The organisms are all eukaryotic and unicellular
2. Some are photosynthetic autotrophs in nature i.e they are plant like (protophyta) e.g
Euglena, plankton and diatom, chlamydomonas
3. Some are animal – like in nature (protozoa) e.g trypanosome, Amoeba, plasmodium,
paramecium. Some of these are heterotrophic and photosynthetic e.g Euglena while
others are heterotrophic.
4. They all reproduce asexually (mitosis) by cell division into 2 daughter cell and some also
reproduce sexually (male and female gamete).
5. Most protists live in water and body fluids of living organism.
6. Many protest are motile using hair like structure called flagella, cilia or by forming
pseudopodia (false feet).

FIG 2: The diagram of Amoeba, Euglena and paramecium as examples of protista

Euglena viviridis
Is a protist that shows both plant-like and animal-like features, it has chloroplast which enable it to
make it own food. It doesnot have a cellulose cell wall, but has a plasma membrane called pellicle
which is an animal-like feature.
In asexual reproduction some protist reproduce by simply dividing into 2 daughter cell (mitosis)

Diagram of Amoeba in Asexual Reproduction

In sexual reproduction they produce male and female gamete which fused to form a fertilized
zygote or cell. The zygote undergo and a special type of cell division know as meiosis to form
spores. Each spores develop into a new organism.
Spores in a special reproductive body which become free of the parent organisms and grow into a
new organism. It may be found as a result of mitosis or meiosis. Spores don’t fuse together as
gamete, many spores have thick walls which protect them until environmental condition are
favourable for germination and growth.

KINGDOM 3 – FUNGI
Kingdom fungi consist of organisms that are plant like in some respects but lack chlorophyll. They
are found growing on logs, dead leaves, fruits, bread, leather
General Characteristics
1. Fungi are saprophytic or parasitic in their mode of nutrition.
2. They have many nucleus in a cell
3. The body of a fungus is made up of filament called hyphae which grows in a network knows as
mycelium
4. The cell wall is composed of a polysaccharide called chitin
5. Some fungi are unicellular e.g yeast, pennicilium while many are multi-cellular e.g Rhizopus,
mushroom
6. They reproduce sexually and asexually. Fungi reproduce rapidly by spores (asexual
reproduction) this are released into surrounding air. When they settle on a suitable material,
they germinate and grow, fungi also produce sexually.

Economic Important of Fungi

Harmful Effect
1. They spoil food
2. They cause disease especially in crop plant.

Useful Effect
1. They are important decomposer.
2. They are used in industries that employ fermentation processes such as wine-making and
beer breweries. Yeast is used in bakeries as a raising agent.
3. They are used to produce many important anti-biotics.
Note: The true fungi that reproduce by forming zygospere are called ZYGOMYCETE
FIG 3:- The diagram of rhizopus and a mushroom as examples of fungi.
 KINGDOM 4 - PLANTAE
Plants are eukaryotic living things that have chloroplast and can make their own food by
photosynthesis. Most plants are multi-cellular and non-motile.
They all posses cell walls that are made up of cellulose. Plant can reproduce asexually by vegetative
reproduction or by the formation of spores. They can also reproduce sexually.

The plant kingdom consist of the following division:-

1. Thallophyta e.g brown algae, red algae, spirogyra and chlamydomonas species.
2. Bryophyta e.g Mosses and liverworts
3. The tracheophyta e.g pteridophytes and spermatophytes

NOTE:- The thallophyta and Bryophyta are non-vascular plants while the tracheophyta are the
vascular plants. Thus; plants are grouped into vascular and non-vascular plants.

NON VASCULAR PLANTS

These are plants without specialized tissues i.e no system for conducting water, food and mineral
salts from one part of plant to another, it restricts their size.
General Characteristics
1. They do not have true stems, roots, leaves and flowers
2. Their bodies can be thread-like (filamentous) e.g spirogyra.
3. They are aquatic in nature
4. They have chloroplasts and cell wall

Thallophyta: This are single green plant that are all aquatic. They have thread-like (filamentous) or
flat (thallus) bodies that do not have true root, stems or leaves. The red, brown and green algae
belong to this group they are mainly sea weeds. Spirogyra is a green algae found in ponds and
ditches.

Algae produce asexually by cell division i.e fragmentation of spores, and also sexually by producing
male and female gametes which fuse to form zygote. We have the simple algae (spirogyra) and
complex algae (ulva).
Diagram: Spirogyra (Simple Algae)

BRYOPHYTA
These include liver wort and mosses, they grow in damp places on land, it shows a distinct
alternation of generation. The sporophyte is also attached and dependent on the gametophyte
which produces
1. Motile male gamete known as Spernmatozoa (singlar:spernmatozoon) or sperms.
2. Non-motile female gamete known as Ova (singular: ovum) or eggs
Water is essential for fertilization so as to enable the sperm swim freely to the egg.

Diagram: Moss

VASCULAR PLANTS (THE TRACHEOPHYTES)

These are the largest group of plant which includes seed plant like flowering plant as well as some
spore-bearing, and non-flowering plant like fern. These are plants with specialized tissues which
enable them to transport water, mineral salts and foods from one part of plant to another. They are
more larger in size.

General Characteristics
1. They possess true roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
2. They are terrestrial plants
3. They have chloroplasts and cell wall
There are two divisions of the tracheophytes;
1. The pteridophytes (spore bearing vascular plants): This include the ferns
2. The spermatophytes (seed bearing vascular plants)

THE PTERIDOPHYTES
Examples of pteridophytes are called ferns which belong to the class FILICINAE

Characteristic of the Pteridophytes

1. They possess horizontal stems called Rhizomes from where leaves called Fronds
arise.
2. Life cycle shows clear alternation of generation i.e (sexual and asexual)

FERN: These are land plant that have roots, stems and leaves, similar to that of flowering plant. The
stem of a fern usually grows horizontally below the ground and so it is called a Rhizome. Fern
leaves are also called Fronds. Fern sprout at intervals along the rhizome and grow upward above
the ground. Fronds are coiled when young and unroll as they grow. Mature fronds bears spores on
the underside. The roots, rhizomes and fronds has conducting vessels. The sporophyte can adapt to
dry condition, the gamitophyte needs moist condition.

Diagram: Fern

THE SPERMATOPHYTES (Seed Plant)

These are seed producing vascular plant. They have well developed root, stems, and leaves, the
seed contain the embryo. The embryo develops from a fertilized egg of a gametophyte which is
completely dependent on the sporophyte. The wide spread occurrence of the seed plant is based
on the efficient seed dispersal. Water is not needed in the process of pollination because the seed
plants are true land plants, these is an advance over non-vascular plants and ferns which needs
water in fertilization. They are divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms.

The Gymnosperm
These are terrestrial green multi-cellular plants with well developed vascular tissues, roots, stem
and leaves

General characteristics of the gymnosperms

1. They have needle – like & scale-like leaves
2. Cones are present instead of flowers
3. They are trees and shrubs.
4. The sporophytes produce two kinds of spores namely microspores and mega spores
5. They do not produce fruits and their seeds are naked e.g pines (class coniferinae), cycas
(class cycadinae) and ginkgo (class ginkgoidae)
Note: The conifers are the most important as they make-up the world’s temperate region forests.
They produce soft wood used for timber and wood pulp (paper making).

FIG 6- The diagram of a pine

The Angiosperms
They are terrestrial, multi-cellular green plants with well developed vascular tissues, stem and
leaves.
Note: The angiosperms have well developed and advanced reproductive systems.
1. They produce flowers with male sex cell and female sex cell
2. They produce seeds enclosed in fruits (i.e their seeds are not naked)
3. They reproduce sexually through the fusion of male & female sex cells.
Angiosperms which are flowering plants are divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

Comparism between Monocot and Dicot

Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Embryo One seed leaf (one cotyledon) Two seed leaves (two cotyledon)
Flower Floral parts in 3’s Floral parts in 4’s or 5’s
Leaves Long leaves with parallel Broad leaves with net venation
venation
Roots Fibrous root system Tap root system
Stem structure Vascular bundles scattered Vascular bundles in rings
Root structure growth None Yes
Examples Grasses, palm, cereals (like Dicotyledons include tomato,
maize, wheat, sorghum) pepper, cowpea, orange plant
etc.
 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Animals are classified accordingly by making use of certain criteria which are:
3. Body symmetry (whether symmetrical or Asymmetrical)
4. Body design (sac like or tube like)
5. Body cavity:- (a) Acoelomates (no body cavity)
(b) Pseudocoelomates (false body cavity)
(c) Coelomtes (true body cavity)

The numbers of germs layers of organisms are also considered.

Germ Layers - are the primary layer of cells in an embryo of an animal based on this, we have some
organisms that are just composed of two layers and most are composed of three layers.
The layers are Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm

The animal kingdom is broadly divided into two namely invertebrates and vertebrate

INVERTEBRATES
They are grouped differently into phylum, these invertebrates are as follows

1. PHYLUM PORIFERA: They are also called sponges. Sponges are aquatic animal found in fresh
water or shallow seas. Their bodies have many pores, canals, and chambers for water to
flow through. Sponges filter food from the water that passes into and out of their body e.g.
Ascon, sycon.
They reproduce asexually and sexually. Though, they are mostly hermaphrodites. They are
all diploblastic animals i.e. having only ectoderm and endoderm.

2. PHYLUM COELENTERATA:- All coelenterates are aquatic animals living either in fresh water
or in the sea. They have hollow cavities which open at one end for food. The body wall is
made up of two layers of cells, which are ECTODERM and ENDODERM.
Examples include hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone etc. they reproduce asexually by producing
out growth called “BUD” from their body walls. Their body is radially symmetrical.

3. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (FLAT WORMS):- These are animals with narrow, flattened
bodies. Some are free-living and are found in fresh or salt water. Liver flukes and tapeworms
are parasitic. They attack man and domesticated animals.
Examples are planaria, Taenia solium, Taenia Saginata and fluke
worm.
Most flatworms are acoelomates and they are triploblastic animals i.e having ectoderm,
endoderm and mesoderm.

4. PHYLUM NEMATODE (ROUND WORMS):- They are other wise known as round worms. They
are long slender and round. Some live freely in the soil while others are parasites on plants
and animals they have no body cavity (i.e aceolomate). They are bi-laterally symmetrical.
Examples include Ascaris, hookworm, filarial, thread worm etc.
5. PHYLUM ANNELIDA (SEGMENTED WORMS):- They are coelomic animals i.e with true body
cavity. They have bodies made up of small, similar segments joined together. Earthworm is
an examples, it lives inside the soil while other types of segmented worms live in sand under
the sea or fresh water.
They reproduce sexually and many are hermaphrodites. Other examples include leech,
bristle worm etc.

6. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA:- The Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. It is
divided into the following classes.
Class I: Insecta e.g Butterfly, housefly cockroach, grasshopper etc.
Class II: Arachnida e.g spider, mites ticks scorpion etc.
Class III: Crustecea e.g prawns, crabs etc.
Class IV: Myriapoda e.g Centipede and millipede
They have segmented bodies and each bears at least three pairs of jointed legs
(appendages).

Their bodies are divided into two or three segments, they have exo-skeleton which are shed
periodically. They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic in nature. Their respiratory
organ ranges from gills, trachea to lung book or body surface. They are all coelomic animals.

7. PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: Animals in this group have soft unsegmented bodies usually enclosed
in one or two shells.
Examples include snails, clams, octopuses, scallops oysters, squids
etc.

The body is covered by a soft tissue called Mantle. Shells protect them from physical
damages, predators and drying out. They reproduce sexually but individuals are always
separate. They are triploblastic & ceolemic animals.

8. PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA:- Echinoderms are marine animals. They have spinny

exoskeleton, they have neither head nor brain and their body is not segmented.

They are triploblastic animals and radially symmetrical. They possess feet uses for
movement.
Examples include starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, bristle star
etc.

VERTEBRATES
9. PHYLUM CHORDATA:- The vertebrate consist of phylum chordate. The first eight phylum in
the kingdom animalia consist of the invertebrate animals.

This phylum contains animals with notochord or backbone. They have a brain, a spinal cord,
and internal skeleton in their bodies.
Phylum chordate is divided into two namely.
a. SUB-PHYLUM ACRANIATA they do not posses true skull
 b. SUB-PHYLUM CRANIATA:- They possess true skull and they all have bilateral
symmetry. Sub-phylum craniata or vertebrates possess five classes which are as
follows:-
i. CLASS PISES:- Examples include fishes of different types e.g Tilapia, Mackerel,
salmon, shark, catfish etc. they are aquatic in nature and uses gill for exchange of
gas.
ii. CLASS AMPHIBIA:- they are terrestrial animals for large part of their life time.
Their eggs are usually laid in water and hatch into tadpoles with gills e.g. toads,
salamander, frogs, newts.
iii. CLASS REPTILIA:- These are animals which breathe with lungs and lay eggs with
tough leathery shell. E.g. snakes, turtles, tortoise, chameleon, crocodile etc.
Note: The three classes of animals above are all cold blooded animals
iv. CLASS AVES (BIRD):- The bodies of these animals are covered with feather.
Their forelimbs are modified into wings and used for flight e.g Ostrich, sparrow,
duck, turkey cockerel, peacocks etc.
v. CLASS MAMMALIA:- The skin of these animals are covered with hair or fur. Young
ones are born alive and suckle milk from mammary glands of their mother.
Examples include man, rat, elephant, goat, dog, pig etc.

EXERCISE TWO & THREE

1. The name living things denotes organisms.
2. The characteristic of living things are
3. The system of naming of living things is based on the one introduce by
4. List the hierarchy of groups used in classification of living things
5. Write out the scientific name of man, gorilla, dog and cat.
6. Explain: Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic organism
7. Mention three main characteristic features of fungi which denote them as non-plants.
8. Mention two main differences between vascular plants and non-vascular plants.
9. Mention three major differences between the angiosperms and the gymnosperms.
10. What are germ layers?
11. Give an example of an animal that reproduces vegetative by budding
12. Triploblastic animals include
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv) (v) (vi)
and (vii)
13. Animal with body cavity include ________, _________ and _________
14. Phylum Arthropoda can be grouped into four classes
(a) Name the classes
(b) Give one example each of the classes mentioned above
15. Write three main differences between the phylum Echinodermata and chordate.
16. What is the significant difference between the sub-phylum Acraniata and Sub-phylum
craniata.

ASSIGNMENT TWO
1a. Mention the classes of the vertebrate animals
b. Write three adaptive features each of the classes mentioned above.
 WEEK SIX

TOPIC: The Cell

CLASS: SS1
DATE: Monday 4th January – Friday 48th January 2021
PERIODS: 3 Periods
DURATION: 40 mins
AVERAGE AGE: 11 years
REFERENCES:
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the class, the pupils should be able to,
 Define a Cell.
 Explain the Cell Theory
 Describe the general Cell Structure
 List 5 Cell Structures and their functions.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: The Environment, papers, buildings etc.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT:

STEP 1: THE CELL

A cell is defined as the basic structured and functional unit of life. There are some organism that are
made up of just one cell, they are known as unicellular organisms e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium,
Euglena, and Chlymadononas.
Organisms with many different cells making up their body are known as multi-cellular organisms.
Examples include Hydra Earthworm, bird, elephant, man, orange tree, palm tree etc.

STEP 2: THE CELL THEORY

The cell theory was propounded by four scientists. The scientists put the result of their research
together and formulate the cell theory from their generalization.

The scientists are:

1. Robert Hooke in 1665 worked on thin slices of cork tissue under the compounded
microscope.
2. Desjardin in 1835 also examined thin slice of living plants under much improved
microscope.
3. Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838 also examined plants and bits of animals
respectively.
The result from their comprehensive research indicates that all their specimens were composed of
cells.

Thus, cell theory state as follows:-

1. All living things are made up of a cell or cell;
2. The cell is the structure and functional unit of all living things.
3. All existing cells come from the reproduction of pre-existing cells.
4. A cell contains information for its structure and functional development in its nucleic acids.
This information is passed down from parent to off spring cells.
 STEP 3: THE CELL STRUCTURE
It has been established that both plants and animals are composed of cells. Basically, both plants
and animals cell are similar in structure. Cell is composed of cytoplasm and nucleus which are
collectively called PROTOPLASM.
Plant cell and animal cell

The structures of organelles in the cells are as follows.

1. CYTOPLASM: All the living materials outside the nucleus are classified as cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is semi-fluid and consists of other organelles. All these organelles are
bounded by cell membrane or plasma membrane.

Functions
a. All the living substances including nucleus are suspended in the semi- fluid cytoplasm.
b. It serves as a transport channel for the materials with the cell.

2. CELL WALL: the cell wall is non-living outer bounded of the cell which is made up of
cellulose. It has tiny pores through which nutrients pass from one cell to another.
Note: cell wall is absent in animal cell

Functions:
a. It gives rigidity to cell and the plants as a whole
b. It allows free passage of materials
 3. CELL MEMBRANE: This is also known as plasma-membrane. It is a thin and flexible layer that
surrounds the entire cytoplasm and separates the cell from neighbouring cells.

Functions:
a. It regulates the movement of substance in and out of the cell
b. It protects the cytoplasm
c. It delimits the content of the cytoplasm

4. MITOCHONDRIA: These are rod-shaped bodies or granules in the cytoplasm. They are more
concentrated in very active cells such as the liver cells
Functions
a. They are the centre of cellular respirations in which digested substance are oxidized to
release energy for the activities of the cells through the synthesis of ATP.
b. Mitochondria contain enzymes and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

5. RIBOSOME: they are minute and roughly spherical structures attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum or suspended in the cytoplasm. They contain a large amount of ribonucleic acid
(RNA)

Functions
Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis

6. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (E.R.): This is a system of canals found abundantly in the

cytoplasm.
If ribosomes are attached to the E.R, it is called ROUGH ENDOPASMIC RETICULUM: and if no
ribosomes are attached, it is called SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Functions
a. They help in the formations of enzymes and proteins
b. They assist in the formation of nuclear membrane during nuclear division
c. They provide surface for the attachment or locations of ribosome.
d. They transport metabolic products within cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus.

7. LYSOSOMES: They are minute and rounded bodies containing enzymes found in animals
cells.

Functions:
a. They destroy worn out parts of cells by discharging enzymes into them and
thereby clearing the area for a new healthy cell to grow.
b. Enzymes released by lysosomes destroy bacteria and other cells.

8. VACUOLES: Vacuoles are found in plants’ cell. They are very large in plant cells but when
they occur in animal cell, they are usually small.
 A vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called TONOPLAST and filled with water, mineral
salts sugar, and cell sap.

Function
a. It stores nutrients and waste products
b. The cell sap is osmotic in nature

9. CENTROSOME: These are usually two small dark, cylindrical bodies found near the nucleus.
Centrioles are mostly found in animal cells. They are absent in plants except some few algae
and fungi.

Functions
a. They help in the formations of cilia and flagella
b. They provide spindle fibre to which chromosomes are attached during cell division.

10. GOLGI BODIES OR GOLGI APPARATUS: They are found in a group of flat tubes or threads.
They are absent in red blood cells and mature sperm

Functions
a. They help in the formation of endoplasmic reticulum and in the production of
cellulose of plant cells.
b. They may also help in distribution of proteins.

11. THE NUCLEUS: it is bounded by a thin living nuclear membrane which separates it from the
cytoplasm

Functions
a. It controls the activities of a living cell. The removal of the nucleus results in the death of
the cytoplasm
b. The nucleus carries chromosome on which hereditary materials (genes) are coded.
c. Nucleus produces DNA and RNA that functions in the manufacture of protein

12. PLASTIDS: Plastids are found only in plant cells. The plastids are chloroplasts, leucoplasts
and chloroplasts
i. Chloroplasts: They only occur in green plants. Chloroplast contains green pigment
called chlorophyll. A chloroplast is surrounded by a membrane.
Functions: It is the seat of photosynthesis, where organic food is synthesized.

ii. Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids mainly for storage of starch or lipids

iii. Chromoplasts: They contain different colours. The colours of petals of flowers are
due to these plastids.

Examples of cells are: Red blood cells, white blood cells, man’s sperm, woman’s (ovum), bacterium,
leaf cell, bone cell etc.
EXERCISE FOUR
1. Cell is defined as.
2. The cell theory was propounded by (i)………………….. (ii)………………… (iii)
………………………….. (iv)……………………… and (v) ………………….
3. State the cell theory
4. The protoplasm consists of ………………… and ………………………
5. The site for cellular oxidation of digested food is …………………. for the production of
……………………………..
6. The organelle in the cell that destroy the worm out part of the cell is called
………………………….
7. ………………… help in the formations of enzymes and protein
8. …………………… help in the formations of cilia and flagella.
9. ……………………. Produce DNA and RNA that functions in the manufacture of proteins.
10. Write one function for each of the following organelle (a) Leucoplast (b) Chromoplast
(c) Chloroplast
11. Tonoplast is the ……………………
12. The cell wall helps to …………………….
13. The …………………………. Delimits the cytoplasm
14. The ………………… protects the cytoplasm
15. Chloroplast contains a green pigment called………………..
16. When ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum it is called ……….……. And
when not attached, it is called ……………………..

ASSIGNMENT THREE
1. Differentiate between plants and animals cell
2. Differentiate between plants and animals
 WEEK SEVEN

TOPIC: Forms that Cells Exist

CLASS: SS1
DATE: Monday 19th February – Friday 23rd February, 2018
PERIODS: 3 Periods
DURATION: 40 mins
AVERAGE AGE: 11 years
REFERENCES:
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the class, the pupils should be able to,
 Explain the Classififcation of Living Things.
 List the hierarchy of groups used in classifying Living Things
 List the Basis for the Classification of Living Things.
 Explain the following: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic Cells
Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Autothrophic and Heterotrophic Organisms
 Mention the 5 Kingdom Classififcation of Living Things.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: The Environment, papers, buildings etc.
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT:

FORMS IN WHICH CELLS EXIST

Cell of living organism exist in different forms some are single and free-living, others may be
colonial, filamentous or part of a living organism.

1. AS A SINGLE AND FREE-LIVING ORGANISM:

Examples include Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena and Chlamydomonas
a. AMOEBA: Amoeba is found in fresh water habitat. It is capable of feeding itself through
engulfing action by the pseudopodia (i.e it is heterotrophic). It exchanges materials with its
environment through diffusion. It is able to control excess of water in its system through the
action of the contractile vacuole.
Amoeba is able to move about through the projection of the finger-like structure called
pseudopodia. It reproduces by cell division.

b. CHLAMYDOMONAS:- Chlamydomonas is a microscopic green alga found in fresh water.

- It possesses a pair of flagellum for locomotion or movement.
- It photosynthesizes by making use of the cup-shaped chloroplast in its cell and stores
excess starch in its pyrenoid.
- It is sensitive to light which is receiving by the eye spot. It also controls the excess water
in its system by means of contractile vacuoles.
- It can reproduce by asexual or sexual methods.
- It should be noted that chlamydomonas is a plant –like protist, amoeba and paramecium
are animal – like protist while Euglena has both plant like and animal – like features.

2. AS A COLONY:
The examples include volvox and Eudorina.
a. VOLVOX: Itis a simple multi-cellular plant.
It is made up of large number of similar cells which are chlamydomonas like jointed by
cytoplasmic strands. Each of the cell possess flagella for co-ordinated movement by the
entire organism.

The cells of VOLVOX have lost their ability to live independently i.e they have become
specialized. Different cells are responsible for movement, for reproduction, photosynthesis
etc. it can be explained better that there is division of labour among the cells of he volvox
colony.

3. AS A FILAMENT:
a. SPIROGYRA: It is a simple filamentous green alga. It consists of a single row of cylindrical
cells jointed and to end. All the cells in the filament are identical. It photosynthesize with the
help of the spiral chloroplasts. The pyrenoid is for storage of excess starch. Each cell is
capable of carrying out its own life process. Therefore, each cell is physiologically
independent but they are motile (i.e not mobile).
Spirogyra can reproduce sexually and can also reproduce or regenerate a cell that breaks off
from the filament vegetatively.

4. CELL AS PART OF SIMPLE MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS

Examples include sponges and hydra.
a. SPONGES: They consist of a few special kinds of cells for examples, they have
amoeboid cells which functions for ingesting food; reproductive cells for producing young
ones; skeleton-making cells for rigidity and support; collar cells for drawing water in
to their bodies.
All the above-mentioned special group of cells are not recognized as tissues but rather as groups of
cells. This is because the cells within each group do not work together to carry out their function in
a coordinated manner. Any of these cells can be modified to carry out some other functions.

b. HYDRA: Is another simple multi-cellular animal and it consisting of special kinds of cells.
Examples of the cells include nerve cells, sensory cells, muscle cells, and stinging cells. Each
group of each kind of cell works in a coordinated manner to carry out a particular functions.

These special groups of cell are called Primitive tissues which consists of:
i. an inner layer (endoderm) lining the gut and function for digestion
ii. an outer layer of cells (ectoderm) which is sentitive and protective
iii. a thin middle layer of gelatinous material (mesoglea) which separates the inner and
outer layers.

5. CELLS AS PART OF A MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS

Organisms which are more complex than the hydra have more types of specialized tissues
containing groups of cells each. Each type of tissue carries out only one particular function. This is
called division of labour within the organism.
Examples of tissues in higher organism includes connective tissue, vascular tissues, muscular tissue,
nervous tissues and surface tissues etc.

Fig 6a - Amoeba

Fig 6b - Chlamydomonas

Fig 6c - Volvox
Fig 6d - Spirogyra

Fig 6e - Sponge

Fig 6f - Hydra
EXERCISE 6 SIX
1. Examples of single and free living organism are ________, ________, ___________, and
____________
2. ___________ carries out heterotrophic nutrition or feeding
3. ___________ uses pseudopodia for movement
4. ___________ possess a pair of flagellum for movement
5. ___________ photosynthesize by making use of it’s cup-shaped chloroplast
6. ___________ is a plant like protist
7. ________ and ________ are animal like protists
8. _________ is both plant – like and animal –like protist
9. ___________ cells carry out division of labour among their cells
10. _________ is a simple multi-cellular organism consisting of cells which are not
coordinated in performing their functions
11. _________ is a simple multi-cellular organism consisting of groups of cells which are
coordinated in performing their functions.

ASSIGNMENT 4
Give examples of the following tissues in higher organisms and specify the type of organism
consisting them
(a) Vascular tissues
(b) Muscular tissues
(c) Surface tissues
(d) Connective tissues
(e) Nervous tissues
 WEEK SEVEN

PLANT NUTRITION

NUTRITION is one of the characteristic of living things. It is the process by which living organism
obtain and utilize materials from external environment for metabolic activities such as respiration,
excretion, growth and reproduction.

MODES OF NUTRITION
The major modes of feeding are:
1. Autotrophic Mode of nutrition (self feeding)
2. Heterotrophic Mode of nutrition (dependent feeding)

HOLOPHYTIC/AUTOTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION

Autotrophic mode of nutrition can be classified into two called
1. photosynthetic mode of nutrition
2. chemosynthetic mode of nutrition

PHOTOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION
Photosynthetic nutrition is carried out majorly by green plants.
Green plants are capable of manufacturing their own organic food from simple inorganic
substances through the process of photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: is defined as the process by which green plant manufacture their food (glucose)
in the presence of carbon iv oxide, water and chlorophyll (which traps light energy) thus, giving off
oxygen as a by product.
The chemical formula of reaction is given below:
sunlight energy enzymes
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon water chlorophyll (glucose) (oxygen)
(iv) oxide

From the simple sugar (glucose) formed, other food substance such as protein, fat & oil and
vitamins are manufactured.

Note- Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because it involves absorption of energy.

Stages of Photosynthesis
1. Light phase or reaction or stage
2. Dark phase or reaction or stage

LIGHT REACTION (takes places during the day)

The processes that take place during the light reaction are as follow:-
i. The chlorophyll traps light energy
ii. The light energy splits the water molecule into hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH)-
The process is referred to as photolysis of water
 H 2O light energy H+ + OH-
Chlorophyll (Hydrogen) (Hydroxyl ion)

iii. The hydroxyl ion reactions leads to the formation of water and oxygen which is given off as
a by production
4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4e
Hydroxyl ion water oxygen

THE DARK REACTION (Reduction of carbon iv oxide molecules)

This stage is called dark reactions because it does not take place in the day or in the presence of
light. The reaction takes place in the presence of enzymes. The hydrogen ions combine chemically
with the carbon iv oxides in complex reactions to form simple sugar (glucose) which are then
changed into starch in the leaf cells.

The starch is later converted back into simple sugars transported to other parts of the plant where
they are needed. These simple sugars are used as source of energy.

Some plants have special storage organs where the sugar is converted back to starch to be stored
for long periods of time. The storage organs may be roots, stems, fruits, or seeds

Enzymes
4H + CO2 CH2O + H2O

2H2O + CO2 Energy, light Enzymes CH2O + H2O + O2

Chlorophyll

NOTE: Green plants must absorb nitrates, sulphates and other mineral salts from the soil to make
proteins, fats & oils in complex processes and also to be able to grow healthy.

Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

From the overall equation of photosynthesis which is written below
light energy enzymes

6CO2 + 12H20 C6H112O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

carbon (iv) oxide water chlorophyll glucose oxygen water

It can be deduced that the essential factor for photosynthesis are carbon iv oxide, water, light
energy and chlorophyll pigments.

1. CARBON IV OXIDE:- The carbon iv oxide required in photosynthesis is obtained from the
atmosphere which contain about 0.03% carbon iv oxide. This gas is continuously being
added to air principally by respiration of plant and animals; by decay of organic materials by
combustion of fuel etc.
Carbon iv oxide get into the plants through the stomatal pores of the leaves

2. WATER: Water and other substance like nitrates are absorbed from the soil through the
root hairs by OSMOSIS. They are then transported to leaves via xylem tissues by various
processes.
 3. LIGHT ENERGY:- The light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll pigments (in chloroplasts)
from sunlight is used as the main source of energy in photosynthesis.

4. TEMPERATURE:- The optimum temperature for photosynthesis to take place is 30 oc, at any
temperature lower than this, the rate of photosynthesis is slower down. Also, temperature
above 40oc will make the process to stop.

5. CHLOROPHYLL:- The chlorophyll function in the absorption of light energy in the leaf cells
which is later converted into chemical energy.

6. ENZYMES:- Enzymes are important in photosynthesis because the stage involved in

photosynthesis are controlled by a particular enzymes at optimum temperature.

NOTE:- The first three conditions are called external factors while the last three are called internal
factors.

Importance of Photosynthesis
1. The use of carbon iv oxide by plants during photosynthesis helps for purifying the
atmosphere
2. Oxygen is released into the environment during photosynthesis to be used by plants and
animals during respiration
3. Green plants trap light energy to make food substance used for their own growth as
well as source of food for other animals directly or indirectly
4. Photosynthesis provides the building block or carbon skeleton on which other food
substances like protein, fats, oil vitamins are built.

The Use of Glucose Produced During Photosynthesis

1. Part of it is used up for respiration
2. The rest is converted and stored as starch
3. Starch can only be translocated in form of glucose and is made available to other parts of
the plant in this soluble state - glucose

EXERCISE SEVEN
1. The photosynthesis process removes ___________ from the atmosphere
2. The equation below represent_____________
3. The oxygen liberated in photosynthesis comes from ______________
4. The first stable products of photosynthesis is _______________
5. __________ is needed for protein synthesis
6. _________ gas is not essential for photosynthesis to take place
7. Photosynthesis is _______________________
8. Autotrophic nutrition is otherwise called__________________
9. Plants are ______________ because they can synthesis their food by themselves
10. Photosynthesis is an _______________ because it involves absorption of energy
11. List three external factors and two internal factors that are necessary for photosynthesis.
 WEEK EIGHT

EXPERIMENTS TO DEMONSTRATE CONDITION NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EXPERIMENT 1:
TO SHOW THAT LIGHT IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

MATERIALS REQUIRED:- A potted plants, strip of black paper, clips, cupboard.

METHODS:- The potted pot is first de starched by putting it in a dark cupboard for 1-2 days. This is
to remove all traces of starch formed in the leaves.
- Then, the middle of one of the leaves is covered by a strip of black paper both at the
front & back with the aid of clips.
- The whole plant is then placed in sunlight.
- The paper is removed after about 3-5 hours and the leaf then tested for starch

Fig 8a

OBSERVATION:- Only the exposed parts of the leaf turned blue-black with iodine solution. The area
that was covered with black paper remain colourless thus showing absence of starch.

CONCLUSION:- This shows sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

 EXPERIMENT 2
TO SHOW THAT CARBON IV OXIDE IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

MATERIALS REQUIRED: A potted plant, Vaseline, conical flask, split cork, retort stand, and caustic
soda (sodium hydroxide) solution.

METHOD: Use a leaf attached to a potted plant. The leaf is enclosed in the flask containing caustic
soda solution. This solution absorbs the carbon iv oxide inside the flask. The flask mouth is corked
and smeared with Vaseline at the neck to make it airtight.
The whole experiment is then exposed to sunlight for several hours. Two leaves (one inside the
flask) and the other outside the flask (control experiment) are plucked and tested for starch.

OBSERVATION:- At the end of the test for starch, it was observe that the leaf inside the flask did not
show blue-black colour. This indicate absence of starch formation due to lack of carbon iv oxide
inside the flask while the leaf outside the flask shows blue –black colour indicating the presence of
starch.

CONCLUSION:- This experiment shows that carbon iv oxide is necessary for photosynthesis to take
place.

FIG 8B

EXPERIMENT 3
TO SHOW THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
MATERIALS REQUIRED: A variegated plant like croton ice-plant or acalypha plant.

METHOD:- The potted variegated plant is exposed to sunlight for about 3-5 hours after which a
variegated leaf is plucked fresh from the plant. The leaf is then tested for starch.

OBSERVATION:- It will be noticed that the green parts of the variegated leaf are stained blue-black
with iodine solution while the white parts remains colourless.

CONCLUSION:- This experiment shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take
place.

Fig 8C

EXPERIMENT 4
TO SHOW THAT OXYGEN IS GIVEN OFF AS A BY-PRODUCT DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
MATERIALS REQUIRED:- A water plant e.g Elodea, glass funnel, beaker, water, test tube, splinter.

METHOD:- Fill up the beaker with water and then place the plant at the bottom of the beaker. Fill
the test tube with water and invert it over the stem of the funnel. The whole set-up is then placed
in the sunlight for several hours. Tiny bubble of gas will appear on the surface of the leaves and
later accumulates at the top of the test tube. The gas is tested with glowing splinter.

OBSERVATION:- It is observed that the gas formed at the top of the test tube rekindles a glowing
splinter showing the presence of oxygen.

CONCLUSION:- This experiment shows that oxygen is given off as a by product during
photosynthesis.
FIG 8D

EVIDENCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS

TO SHOW THAT SIMPLE SUGAR AND STARCH ARE PRODUCED
The main product of photosynthesis is simple sugar. The simple sugar is used partly by the plant
and converted the excess into starch for storage immediately. The starch is then transported to
other part of the plant through the phloem vessels (a process called translocation)

EXPERIMENT
TO TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF STARCH IN THE LEAF
MATERIAL REQUIRED:- Fresh green leaves from outdoor plants, beaker, burner, boiling tubes,
dropping tubes, white tile and iodine solution.

METHOD: Boil the leaf in water for 4-6minutes so as to kill the cells (protoplasm) inactivate the
enzymes and burst the starch grains present.
Then, decolourise the leaf by dipping it inside a test tube containing 70% alcohol. Later, the
decolourised leaf is placed inside a beaker of hot water to soften it. Place the leaf on white tile, add
drops of iodine solution to test for starch. Also, a leaf plucked from a plant kept in the dark
cupboard is tested for starch.

OBSERVATION:- It is observed that the leaf plucked from the potted plant outside turned blue-black
with iodine while the other leaf remain colourless.

CONCLUSION:- This shows that photosynthesis has taken place for the leaf in the real experiment to
have turned blue black.

FIG 8e
 CHEMOSYNTHETIC MODE OF NUTRITION
Certain bacteria are autotrophic in nutrition; they are capable of manufacturing their own food
from simple inorganic substance such as CO2, H2O, H2S.

They use the energy released during chemical reaction as the main source of energy for the process
and do not depend on sunlight energy. They have enzyme system capable of trapping the chemical
energy.

Examples include SULPHUR BACTERIA in the soil. It can oxide hydrogen sulphide (H 2S) in its
environment to produce energy.

THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS

sulphur bacteria
2H2S + O2 S + 2H2O + Chemical
(hydrogen sulphide) (oxygen) (sulphur) (water) energy

This chemical energy is capable of bringing about the combination of hydrogen sulphide and carbon
iv oxide in the soil to form sugar, water and sulphur.
Chemical energy
12H2S + 6CO2 H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

Another examples is NITRIFYING BACTERIA (i.e Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) in the soil oxidize
ammonical to nitrite and respectively.
nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 3O2 2HNO2 + 2H2O + chemical
(ammonia) (oxygen) (nitrite) (water)
2HNO2 + O2 2HNO3 + chemical energy
(nitrite) (nitrate)

The energy released is used to form sugar.

The bacteria also used the nitrate in the soil with the sugar produced to form proteins.

NOTE: All organisms that feed autotrophically are called AUTOTROPHY.

MINERAL RESOURCES IN PLANT

Plant can produce glucose and other carbohydrates from carbondioxide and water but for protein
formation and optimal healthy growth, plants require mineral salts.

These minerals are obtained from the soil, as the plants can not make them. It is from these
minerals that plants obtained the major and minor elements they need. Apart from carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen, plants need seven major (essential) elements.

The seven major essential elements are nitrogen phosphorous, sulphur, potassium, calcium, iron
and magnesium. The minor or trace elements are copper, zinc, boron manganese and
molybdenum. They are mainly required for the activity. The absence of any of these elements in the
soil where a plant is growing results to DEFICIENCY DISEASE.

However, a solution that contains all the elements required by plants can be prepared in the
laboratory.

Type of such solution is called a COMPLETE CULTURE SOLUTION OR WATER CULTURE. Water
culture is used for determining the mineral salts needed by plants and the effects of their
deficiency. The method required the growing of seedlings in distilled water to which various
elements are added in order to observe the effects of presence or absence of the elements.

EXERCISE (8) EIGHT

1. Give four differences each between photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
2. The products of photosynthesis are ______________ and ___________
3. The importance of the products mentioned above are (i) __________________
(ii) ________________________
4. The importance of iodine solution is to ________________
5. Chemosynthesis can be briefly explained as ____________________-
6. The essential elements are required in _______________ while the trace elements required
in __________________
7. The solution that contains all the elements required by plant is called___
8. Leaf must be boiled in water for some minutes when testing for starch in order to
_______________________
9. The best time to test for the presence of starch in a leaf is ___________
10. Plants require mineral salts so that _______________

ASSIGNMENT FIVE
Briefly highlight the importance and the deficiency effects of the following mineral salts in plants
i. Nitrogen
ii. Sulphur
iii. Calcium
iv. Phosphorus
v. Potassium
vi. Magnesium
vii. Iron
 WEEK NINE

NUTRIENT CYCLES

Nutrient cycle is the continuous movement or circulation of atoms of essential elements from the
environment.

THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is removed from the atmosphere through the following ways:
1. Carbon IV oxide (about 0.03%) in atmosphere is absorbed by green plants in day light
to manufacture carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Fat and oil, and proteins are
manufactured from carbohydrates.
2. The manufactured food of plant is then eaten by animals. Thus, animals take in carbon
present in food manufactured by plants directly or indirectly.
3. Dissolved carbon iv oxide in water is used by aquatic plants (planktons, algae) to
photosynthesis food. Fishes and other aquatic animals make use of this food.

In the same pattern, carbon iv oxide is returned to the atmosphere through plants and animals
activities. Carbon iv oxide is returned through the following ways.

i. Both plants and animals respire: During this process, carbon present in carbohydrates and
other food substance is returned to the atmosphere as carbon iv oxide. The equation below
summarise the process of respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
(Carbohydrate) oxygen carbon iv oxide iv water

ii. Plants and Animals Die: After death, their bodies are decomposed (by bacteria and fungi)
and the carbon compound in then breakdown releasing carbon iv oxide to the environment.

iii. Through the process of carbonification and pressure, dead plants over long period forms
coal, oil and gases (fuels). When these fuels are burnt, carbon in the form of carbon iv oxide is
released into the atmosphere. Wood also releases carbon iv oxide into the atmosphere when burnt
as firewood..

Carbon – Oxygen Balance

The quantity of oxygen present in the atmosphere is about 20 percent in volume. This amount of
oxygen is required to keep living organism and living systems alive and active.

The oxygen is used primarily in respiration to produce energy. At night oxygen volume may
decrease slightly due to the cessation of photosynthetic activities of green plants. On the other
hands, the percentage volume of carbon iv oxide may increase slightly at night time when
photosynthesis in green plant ceases.

In day light, the excess carbon iv oxide is quickly utilized with resultant production of oxygen in
photosynthetic process. However, the carbon oxygen balance is maintained in this way.
 THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen cycle is the natural continuous circulation of nitrogen actions through the atmosphere,
living things, soil and water in a cyclic manner.

Nitrogen is an essential element. It is used for the synthesis of amino acids, proteins and nucleic
acids. The atmosphere contains over 78% by volume of nitrogen, but atmospheric nitrogen is not
useful to most living things.
Living things cannot utilize nitrogen in the form present in the atmosphere. For instance, plants
take in nitrogen as ammonium and nitrate. The cycle of nitrogen takes place in the following way.

i. NITROGEN FIXATION
It occurs chiefly by the action of lightning discharges and nitrogen fixing organisms.
a. The oxides formed by the lightning discharges during thunderstorm combines with rain
water to form acids (nitrous acids and nitric acids). The acids are then washed into the soil
where they react with mineral salts to form nitrates which are useful to plants.

b. There are two types of nitrogen fixing organism which are free – living nitrogen fixers such
as Azotobacter, Clostridium and blue green agae e.g Nostoc.
The second group are the nitrogen that lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants called
RHIZOBIUM.

Rhizobium
The free-living nitrogen fixers carry out NON SYMBIOTIC NITROGEN FIXATION while the Rhizobium
carry out SYMBIOTIC NITROGEN FIXATION.

These two sets of organism convert nitrogen into organic nitrogenous compounds within their
bodies. When these organisms die, the nitrogenous compounds within their bodies are
decomposed and converted into NITRATES.

ii. AMMONIFICATION:- the dead remains of plants, animals and micro-organisms undergo
decomposition by putrefying microorganisms such as saprophytic soil bacteria and fungi
which break down protein and their amino acids to ammonia which are converted to nitrate
by nitrifying bacteria

iii. NITRIFICATION:- There are many chemosynthetic bacteria present in the soil. These
organisms can convert ammonia to nitrate in two stages. In the first stage, NITROSAMINES
convert AMMONIA to NITRITE ions which are TOXIC to plants.

In the second stage, NITROBACTER converts NITRITE IONS to NITRATE IONS which can be
ABSORBED by plants.

Nitrogen can return back in to the environment through the following:

DENITRIFICATION: This is the conversion of nitrite to gaseous nitrogen by DENITRIFYING BACTERIA.
This can take place water logged soils deficient of oxygen (anaerobic) and containing denitrifying
bacteria. The bacteria REDUCE NITRATE to NITRITE, AMMONIA, OXIDES OF NITROGEN and lastly to
NITROGEN GAS, most of which are returned to the atmosphere

WATER CYCLE
All living organism contain a high percentage of water. Plants take up water from the soil in large
amounts through rainfall or irrigations and lose most of it by transpiration into the atmosphere.

Only a small amount of the absorbed water is used in photosynthesis and other metabolic
reactions. Animals take in water constantly from their food and drink. They lose most of this water
in the air they breathe out, in faces urine and sweat (mammals). All living organism release water
during cellular respiration.

Decomposers release water during most decay processes. Combustion of most fuels also release
water. Water circulates mainly within the abiotic environment. The cycle is maintained mainly by
the evaporation and condensation of water in the abiotic environment.

Thus, water that enters the biotic component of the ecosystem returns to the abiotic environment
through respiration, decay, excretion transpiration and evaporation.

EXERCISE NINE
1. Nitrogen fixation is _________________
2. Nitrifications is ____________________
3. Denitification is ________________
4. The two main ways by which atmosphere nitrogen is converted into nitrogen salt in
the soil _____________ and ______________
5. Three ways in which carbon is recycled in nature are ________ _________ ___________
6. Water returns to the abiotic environment through _____________ _________,
_____________ and __________
7. Nutrient cycle is _____________ ____________-

ASSIGNMENT SIX
1. Discuss on important of water to living organisms
2. Draw a diagrammatic representation of (i) water cycle (ii) carbon cycle
 WEEK TEN

ANIMAL NUTRITION (HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION)

This type of nutrition is carried out by all animals and certain plants that lack chlorophyll which
cannot manufacture their food

Heterotrophs depend directly or indirectly on authotrophs for their foods

Organism that practice heterotrophic nutrition are called HETEROTROPHS

1. HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which food is obtained as a solid organic material, eaten digested and
absorbed into the body. Holozoic animals have developed sensory, nervous and muscular
structure to enable them search and catch their food. Holozoic animals are herbivores, carnivores
and omnivores.

HERBIVORES are animals that feed on plants/vegetables only. Examples include rat, rabbit, goat,
sheep, cow etc.

CARNIVORES are animals that feed on flesh or animal only. Examples include cat, dog, lion, cheetah
etc.

OMNIVORES are animals that feed on flesh and vegetable or animals and plants. Examples include
man, pig etc.

2. SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which non-green plants feed on deaddecaying organic matter. Enzymes
are secreted from the cell to the dead organic matter and the digestion of the dead organic matter
takes place outside the cells (extracellular digestion) of the saprophytic organisms. The organism
which feed saprophytic ally are called SAPROPHYTES. Most fungi (e.g mucor, mushroom, rhizopus
& yeast) and some bacteria are examples.

3. SYMBIOTIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species live together to take
advantages of each other. This type of association is called symbiosis. In some cases, the two
organism become so dependent on each other that each one cannot survive alone e.g feeding
relationship between algae and a fungus in LICHEN is mutualistic.

The fungus provides moisture (water), minerals salts and support for the algae which manufacture
food by photosynthesis for the fungus and itself. Another example is symbiotic feeding between
herbivorous animals (e.g. goat, sheep) and cellulose digesting bacteria that lives in the intestine of
the herbivores.

4. PARASITIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which one organism obtains food from another organism and during
the feeding process ones organism suffers harm and does not benefit in any way.

The organism gaining food, protection and shelter is called PARASITE while the organism that
suffers harm, providing food, protection and shelter is called HOST. The association between a host
and a parasite is called PARASITISM.

Some parasites live on the surface of their host and are called ECTOPARASITES. Examples include
ticks, fleas, mites, bed-bug ets.

Those parasites that live inside their host are called ENDOPARASITES. Examples include tape worm,
liver flukes, Ascaris, plasmodium etc.
Parasitic nutrition also take place in a plant called DODDER
It is a parasitic flowering plant with scale leaves which are not green. The stem is thin and rope like
which coils round the stem of a host plant Dodder develops suckers which are sent into the vascular
bundles of the host from where it obtains food and water it requires for its metabolism. Another
example is mistletoe.

5. CARNIVOROUS OR INSECTIVOROUS NUTRITION IN PLANTS

A few green plants supplement their nutrient with organic food by trapping insects and other small
animals.

The trapped insects are digested and the amino acids are absorbed to supplement the nitrogenous
compound requirement of the plant. This is so because the carnivorous plants often grow in soil
poor in nitrogen.
Examples include Pitcher plant, Sundew, Venus fly-trap, bladder wort etc.

EXERCISE TEN
1. Mushroom is an organism which feed_______________
2. The tapeworm is a _________________
3. Parasitism can best be defined as an association between two organisms in which
_________________________________
4. The mode of nutrition in which digestion is extra-cellular is _________
5. A saprophytic nutrition involves___________________
6. Parasites can be divided into _________ and _____________
7. Two examples of plant parasites are __________ and ____________
8. Two carnivorous plants are __________ and ___________

ASSIGNMENT SEVEN
1. Discuss briefly on the life cycle of the tapeworm.
2. Briefly explain how a plant parasite obtains its food from the host.