1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 LOCATION, EXTENT AND ACCESSIBILITY

This study is based on the lithostratigraphic and sedimentologist analysis of rock samples

obtained from various locations in Ozaraukwu and environs in Afikpo Basin, Nigeria located in

Southern Benue Trough. The study area (Ozaraukwu,) lies in the Afikpo Synclinorium , lower

Benue Trough which is a depression formed in the eastern flank of southeastern edge of the

trough as a result of Santonian tectonism and uplift of the Abakaliki Anticlinorium. The major

access routes to the area are the Abakaliki-Afikpo Road, Afikpo-Okigwe Road which are tarred.

Some minor roads include Amasiri road, Oziza road, Izumgala-Uwana road, Ndibe beach road

down to Cross-river. Ridges of sandstones and plains and valleys of shales form prominent and

extensive features in the study area. Sandstones and shales are very important constituents of

sedimentary processes and are therefore very crucial in the understanding of stratification history

of their environments of deposition.

Most of the locations studied during the field work are sandstone ridges opposite Ebonyi hotel by

Government college roundabout, sandstone ridges along Afikpo-Abakaliki road,

rip-up/limestone clast, a sandstone ridge at crush stone quarry along Amasiri Okposi Ohozara

road, a gully along Afikpo-Abakaliki Road, at the front of Methodist church Ogwugwo-Mgbom

Afikpo etc. The stated locations above are some of the locations studied during the field work.
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Fig. 1: Accessibility map of Ozaraukwu area

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The Afikpo Sub-basin has been noted to form during the Santonian Orogeny in the upper

Cretaceous time (Campanian-Maastrichtian). The stratigraphy of the Southern Nigeria consists

of Asu River Group, Eze-Aku Group and Mamu Formation deposited in alternating

Transgressive phase. The Asu River Group, consisting of shale, sandstone and limestone is the

oldest dated sedimentary rock unit in Southern Benue Trough (Whiteman, 1982). Simpson

(1955), and Reyment and Barber (1956) were of the view that the Asu River Group was

deposited in amoderately deep water environment during the Albian, with the abundant
 3

ammonites, radiolarians, and pollens. According to Reyment (1965), the Albian sediments were

moderately folded in many places. On the other hand, the Eze-Aku Group is believed to

represent typical shallow water deposits, consisting mainly laterally into sandstone, limestone,

calcareous sandstone, and sandy limestone of hard grey to black shales and siltstones. Facies

changes to sandstones and sandy shales are common. The thickness of these lithostratigraphic

units varies locally and may be up to 100m in thick and passes. On the eastern flank of the same

Anticlinorium, Barnajee (1980, 1981) and Major (1987) identified and described similar

lithofacies. Amasiri sandstone (Eze-Aku Group) in the Afikpo Synclinorium extensively

underlies the manifestation (Asu River Group) at Ohana and partially overlies the Odukpani area

in the Oban Masif and unconformally overlies the Nkporo Group in the Afikpo Sub-basin (Igwe,

2015). Murat (1972) was of the view that the Eze-Aku shale shows deposits of marine condition

in a tectonically controlled basin (the Abakaliki Trough). He believed that sandstone deposits

mark a period of regression, while the shale deposits indicate a period transgression. On the basis

of the predominance of shale from Abaomege towards Abakaliki, Nwackwukwu (1975)

concluded that deep-sea conditions terminated at Abaomege from where a shallow marine

condition commenced. He also believed that a distant metamorphic basement had contributed to

the sediments in the Eze-Aku shale because He found metamorphic minerals in the sandstone

unit, in addition to conclisions he drew from heavy mineral analysis.

The Eze-Aku Group was deposited in the Turonian Transgressive phase but in a shallow marine

environment. The lithologies include shale, sandstones, and calcerous sandstones. The fossils in

the formation include vascocerastids, pececypods, gastropods, echinoids, fish teeth, decapods,

and plant fragments (Reyment, 1965). The predominantly Albian-Cenomenian marine

depositional cycle was terminated by a phase of folding (Nwachukwu, 1975; Olade, 1978),
 4

which affected the Asu River Group in the area. The second Transgressive-regressive phase of

deposition in Turonian to Santonian was terminated again by a phase of folding and faulting in

the early Santonian times, which affected all the sediments deposited before tectonism and this

produced the Afikpo syncline.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to carry out a detailed field geologic mapping of the

lithological, textural and foraminiferal biostratigraphic analysis of the depositional units in the

area.

The specific objectives include:

1. To carry out field geologic and lithologic mapping

2. To carry out textural or petrological analysis of the sandstone

3. To carry out foraminiferal biostratigraphic analysis

4. To interpret depositional environment and stratigraphy.

1.4 METHODS OF STUDY

The mapping exercise started with a comprehensive desk study and review of existing work on

the study area followed by a thorough reconnaissance survey of the area to determine the

accessible routes. The mapping method employed was a simple compass and transverse method

of geologic mapping involved a systematic identification, description of rock types, the

delineation and demarcation of their lithologic contacts using features such as topography,

vegetation, soil types and drainage density. The equipments used during the mapping exercise

includes; Brunton compass, a topographic map on a scale 1:25000, geologic hammer, a field

notebook, Global positioning system(GPS), Measuring tape, sample bags, camera and

magnifying lens. Dips and strike were measured with the compass and clinometers and plotted
 5

on the map. Samples are collected, observed and analyzed at road cuts, bush parts, river cuts,

foot parts, existing and abandoned quarries.

1.5 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SETTING

1.5.1 Topography and Drainage

The study area consists of nearly parallel ridges of sandstone units striking NE-SW with

intervening lowlands units formed by the shale. Akpoha and its environs lie within the Cross

River Basin and the Afikpo synclinorium. The sandstone ridges in the area lies about 300m

above mean sea level and the shale lies at an average of 150m. The relief from map is very high

in the southeastern part of it. The seasonal stream are virtually confined to the lowland ares, whih

are occupied by the shale unit, therefore, lowlands are thickly vegetated and used for cultivation

of rice by the villagers or inhabitants.

Fig. 2: Drainage map of Ozaraukwu area

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The study area is poorly drained. The major drainage pattern of the area is dentritic. Only little

surface water drains it by dark yellowish colored rivers like Otoni River. This river rises from

relief of about 300m and meanders into the deep gouge. This river flows through gouges with

fragmental waterfalls. The valleys at high levels are dried apart from short periods during the

rainy season. The river however flows into the Cross River and Imo rivers.

1.5.2 Climate and Vegetation

The study area lies within the tropical rainforest of Nigeria, Inyang, (1975). It has two main

seasons; the rainy and dry seasons, which belong to the fourth climate region of Inyang, (1975).

The wet season starts from March and ends in November while the dry seasn starts from

December and ends in February. The rain has high intensity of thunderstorms, particularly

towards the end of this rainy season. Annual rainfall figures range from 1100mm to about

2000mm. Temperatures is generally high during the day, Inyang, (1975). Particularly between

the months of February and March. The mean monthly temperature ranges between 20 0C and

300C, Inyang (1975).

The vegetation of the study area lies within the tropical rainforest belt of Nigeria. During the

rainy season, the area has evergreen vegetation and contains shrubs and trees. The exceptional

topography of the area led to differences in the vegetation mainly shrubs while luxuriant growth

was observed at the low-lying shale dominated by plains and it is also swampy. Geological

fieldwork is successfully done in the area between the months of December and January.
 7

Figure 3: Vegetation Map of Nigeria

1.5.3 Superficial Deposit

Afikpo sub-basin made up of predominantly loamy sandy soil and clay soil with the soils which

could have been deposited by agents of denudation, transportation and deposition which results

from the effects of weathering of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock within a given

geographic area which is a times called over burden when found on an outcrop. The sandstone

deposits of the superficial deposit span over large areas within the Afikpo area. The sandstone

body is consolidated forming the ridges that runs N-S along the area of the Abakaliki

Anticlinorium and its form the Amasiri sandstone (Ezeaku Group). Sub-facial deposit shale,

which had undergone extensive weathering, is clays and coal (Lignite coal) at the Wowo River

and Oziza coal.

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CHAPTER TWO

REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING

2.1 REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING

The Benue Trough is a geological formation underlying a large part of Nigeria and extending

about 1000km NE from the Bright of Benin to Lake Chad. It is part of the broader Central Africa

Rift System. The trough has its Southern limit at the Northern boundary of the Niger Delta,

where it dips down and is overlaid with tertiary and more recent sediments. It extends in a

Northeasterly direction to the lake of Chad Basin, and is about 150km wide. The Trough is

arbitrarily divided into lower, middle; upper region is further divided into the Gongola and Yola

arms. The Anambra basin in the West of the lower region is more recent than the rest of the rest

of the trough, being formed during a later period of compression, but is considered part of the

Formation.

The Benue Trough has often been described as an elongate fault bounded depression, Burke and

Dewey (1973), Grant (1971), Nwajide (1990) and Olade (1975). They postulated that Benue

Trough originated as a triple junction which was initiated during the break-up of Gondwana and

separation of the African plate from the South America continental plate. One of which failed to

develop. The first sedimentation cycle took place when a pre-Albian Transgression occurred

along a NE-SW trending fault system. The first marine transgression took place in Albian or

Aptian time. Further drifting of the trough resulted in the deposition of the sandstone members of

the Aptian to Albian Asu-River Group. A mild deformational episode (and igneous intrusion)

that occurred during the cenomanian restricted deposition to the southern part of the trough

(Nwajide, 1990).
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Regression started during the lower Turonian and continued to the Conecian , beds of rapidly

changing lithofacies including shale and limestone were deposited (the Agwu Formation). The

deposition of Eze-Aku Group and Agwu Formation occur during the second sedimentation cycle.

After the third cycle, the deformed and unlifted trough became a positive element (the Abakaliki

Anticlinorium) to shed detritus into the new depocentres, the Anambra Basin and the Afikpo

Syncline. Further volcanism and magmatism continued after the deposition of the sediments.

Nwajide (1990) summarized the depositional packages and the tectonic regime of the central

Benue Trough as follows;

1. Aptian-Cenomanian: Deposition of paralic shallow marine alluvial fan and fluvialtile

sediments with graben (rifting) formation.

2. Turonian-Santonian: Paralic marine and fluvialtile pyroclastic extension with the adjustment

of basement fault blocks and drape folding

3. Campanian-Maastritchtian: paralic, marine and fluvialtile under a tectonic regime of new

basin formation, consequent on drape folding.

4. Benkhelil (1982) proposed a pull Apart Model. In his model, the Benue Trough is believed

to be related to the Atlantic fracture zones which in turn are related occurrence of oceanic

transform faults, whose movement was initiated due to old lines of weakness within the middle

belt. He also opined that the history of the Benue Trough began during Albian times. The

configuration of the Abakaliki and Benue Trough and related tectonic elements during Albian-

Santonian time (first sedimentary cycle).

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2.2 REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING

Regionally, the mapped area is within the southern end of the Benue Trough. The oldest

sedimentary rocks in Nigeria are in this trough and they are of lower Cretaceous age. The

Cretaceous Stratigraphic record of the Southern Benue Trough is represented by sediments

deposited by three main marine depositional cycles (Table 1): Campanian-Maastrichtian

(Reyment, 1965, Ofoegbu, 1984) shortly after the breakup of Africa and South Africa, a

continental condition favorable for the deposition of fluvio-deltaic sediment, which occurred in

the Albian age. The Aptian sediment is presented by the Ogoja sandstones. The first marine

transgression in this trough occurred in the middle Albian age with the deposition of Asu River

Group sediments with type locality along the back of Asu River (Reyment, 1965). The sediments

consist of rather poorly bedded sandy shales with sandstone and sandy-limestone lenses. The

regressive phase of the marine Transgression led to the deposition of the cenomanian sediments.

The beds of this age are located in the southeastern part of Nigeria, around Calabar. These beds

have been assigned as the Odukpani formation (Reyment, 1965). It consists arkostic sandstones,

limestone and alternating Limestones and shales which became gradually more predominantly

shally in its uppermost part (Reyment, 1965). The Turonian is overlain by sediment of Coniacian

age. The Coniacian is represented by the Agwu formation (Reyment, 1965). The formation

consists of bluish grey, well-bedded shales. The Santonian age was heralded by a tectonic event.

This tectonic epirogenic event led to the uplift, folding and widespread erosion of the Pre-

Santonian in the Trough.

The Campanian-Maastrichtian experienced the third sedimentary cycle in the trough. It started

with the deposition of the Nkporo Formation, Nkporo Shale). It consists of dark shale and

mudstone with occasional thin beds of sandy shales and sandstone. A regressive phase of this
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Transgression occurred in middle Maastrichtian with the deposition of the Mamu Formation and

subsequent depositions of Ajali Formation. A minor transgression occurred in late Maastrichtian

with the deposition of Nsukka Formation. This stratigraphy represented below. This stratigraphy

represented below.

Table 1: Regional Stratigraphic Sequence of Southeastern part of Nigeria (modified from

Reyment, (1965), Murat (1972)

Age Formation Sedimentary cycle

Phocene Benin Formation Niger-Delta

Pleistocene Ogwashi – Asaba Formation Basin

Eocene Ameki Formation (third tectonic phase)

Paleocene Imo Formation

Maastrichtian Nsukka Formation Anambra-Afikpo Basin

Ajali Formation (second sedimentary

Mamu Formation cycle)

Campanian Nkporo/Enugu Formation

(including Afikpo Sandstone and

Owelle Sandstone)

Santonian Coniacian Awgu Formation Abakaliki-Benue Basin

Turonian Eze-Aku Formation (first sedimentary cycle)

Cenomanian Odukpani Formation

Albian Asu-River Group

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CHAPTER THREE

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION AND DESCRIPTION OF LITHOLOGIC

UNITS

3.1 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION

The lithostratigraphic succession of the study area is represented by Campanian-Maastrichtian

deposits of Nkporo Group underlain by Late Cenomanian-Turonian Eze-Aku Group. The

Nkporo group mainly the Afikpo Sandstone underlying the study area in the Afikpo Sub-basin

are delineated on the basis of their lithologic character, structures and stratgraphic positions. The

Amasiri Sandstone (Eze-Aku Group) outcrops in the Ozaraukwu and Ameta areas. The

lithologic unit/lithofacies to be described include sandstone, siltstone and shale. Four units were

observed and designated as unit 1, Unit 2, and Unit 3 starting from the oldest to the youngest

unit.
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Fig: 4 Geologic map of Ozaraukwu area

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT

The lithostratigraphic units are the subdivision of the rocks in the earth’s crust distinguished and

delineated on the basis of lithologic characteristics.

These units are recognized and defined by observable physical features rather than the inferred

geological history. They are also practical units of general geological work that serves as

foundation for describing, mapping and studying lithology, local and required structure,

stratigraphy, economic resources and geologic history.

The stratigraphic sequene of the study area can be characterized into major lithostratigraphic

units.
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These units that have been recognized include:

UNIT 3: Amaizu shale unit (Nkporo Group)

UNIT 2: Amuro sandstone unit (Afikpo Sandstone)

UNIT 1: Ozaraukwu Sandstone/Shale unit (Amasiri Sandstone of the Eze-Aku Group)

Table 2: Lithostratigraphic succession of the study area

AGE FORMATION UNITS DESCRIPTION

/GROUP
Late C Dark grey to black shale
Nkporo

Campanian- Amaizu Shale consisting of Ammonites and

Maastrichtian Gastropods
B Medium to very coarse
Amuro Sandstone grained, moderately sorted
and pebbly friable sandstone

Late A Consists of dark grey to black

Eze-Aku

shale with sandstone ridges.

Cenomanian- Ozaraukwu
Turonian Sandstone/Shale

3.2.1 Unit 1: Ozaraukwu Sandstone/Shale

The lithofacies unit consists dominantly of dark grey to black shale with sandstone ridges. It is

the oldest unit in the study area.The shales occupy the low marshy land in between elongated

sandstone ridges which trend in a NE-SW direction. The contact between the shale and the

sandstone are gradational. The Sandstones occur in elongate ridges trending NE-SW direction.

They consist of both light grey to whitish on fresh samples and yellowish to brown in colour in

weathered part. The sandstone is consolidated in some locations. The light grey to white

calcareous Sandstone is the dominant lithofacies. The outcrops in this unit are exposed at along
 15

Afikpo Abakaliki roundabout about 800m from Amasiri junction, Amasiri/Okposi/Amaeta

Roads, off Oziza Road, Abakaliki-Afikpo Roads and along Amasiri/Ibii Roads.

Generally, the Sandstone beds dips to the Southeast at a dip amount range of 32 0-520 and strike

in the NE-SW direction. The sedimentary structures noted in this Sandstone ridges are occasional

planar and trough cross beds and strike slip faults.

Fig 5: outcrop of a laminated shale underlain by a Sandstone ridge along Afikpo Abakaliki Road

Fig6: outcrop of a calcareous, bioturbated and highly consolidated sandstone bed in front
of deeper life church Amasiri
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Fig7: An outcrop of cryptic bioturbated and parallel laminated sandstone at a local quarry off Ibii

junction

Fig8: Outcrop of thin bedded and laminated heterolithics along Afikpo-Oziza Road.
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Fig9: Limestone in Rip-Up clasts embedded in sandstone outcrop at Ibii junction

UNIT 2: Amuro Sandstone

This unit has the Afikpo sandstone as its member. The Afikpo sandstone belongs to the Nkporo

formation of the Campanian to Maastrichtian age. It was encountered in the following outcrop;

Outcrops in Ebonyi Hotel, Macgregor hill, Outcrop opposite Ebonyi Hotel, outcrop at Ozara

Ukwu along Amasiri Afikpo road, Outcrop at mechanic village Afikpo, outcrop beside

Government College, outcrop at mountain of fire church along Oziza Afikpo. It consists of

dominantly medium to very coarse grained, moderately sorted and cross- bedded and pebbly

friable Sandstone. The Sandstones are friable due to poor cement quality of clay and are

generally quarts arenites with no feldspar and rarely micas. The Sandstone is highly bioturbated

in some places with vertical and horizontal burrows of Orphiomorpha ichno species of skulithons

ichno facies. The Sandtone contain planar and trough beds, Lenticular bedding. The outcrops

mapped in this unit generally showed an upward coarsening sequence.

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Fig10: Outcrop of crossbedded and bioturbated Sandstone beside government college Afikpo

Fig11: Crossbedded Sandstone at Ozaraukwu along Afikpo Amasiri Road

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Fig. 12: Outcrop of Afikpo Sandstone showing Orphiomorpha burrows isp of Skolithons ichno
facies

Fig13: Outcrop of Macgregor Sandstone unit (Afikpo Sandstone) showing the planar cross-

bedded sandstone sequence

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Fig14: Litholog of sandstone outcrop at Mechanic village, Afikpo

Fig15: Litholog of sandstone outcrop at Macgregor hill

UNIT 3: Amaizu Shale

This unit is a dark grey to black, fossiliferous shale component unit of Nkporo shale. It contains

well developed ammonites and gastropods which can be recognized in the field. More so,

organic materials can be clearly seen in hand specimen. The shales are fissile, thinly laminated

and occasionally blocky. The shale of this unit is rich in clay mineral suites, though only

micaceous minerals are seen in hand specimen. Based on the lithologic characteristics of this

unit, it is correlated with the Nkporo Group on the basis of its stratigraphic position, this unit is

found to overlie the Afikpo Sandstone and it was encountered in like the in front of Methodist

church Ogwugwu Mgbom Afikpo.

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Fig16: Outcrop of fossiliferous and gypsumferrous shale at Ogwugwu Mgbom Afikpo

3.3 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

The term structures include some large scale features of the sedimentary rock that has been

imposed on term during the process of transportation and subsequent deposition. These

structures maybe primary (those formed along with deposition or shortly after deposition as a

result of weathering) or secondary structures which is as a result of folding, faulting, uplifting or

tilting and also chemical structures. The structures encountered in the area revealed much about

the depositional environment of the area.

3.3.1 Primary Structures

Primary structures are structures in sedimentary rock formed during deposition. Primary

sedimentary structures occur in clastic sediments and produced by the same process (currents

etc) that caused deposition. Includes plane bedding and cross bedding.

In sedimentary rock the systematic development of location fabric known as bedding, for

example, sandstone may display bedding that is defined by systematic variations in grain size

through a section. In a rock sequence bedding might also be defined by alternation of layers that
 22

are predominantly composed of grains of the mineral calcite. In this case, the rock layer would

be called a limestone, and layers composed of clay mineral forming a layer of clay or mudstone.

The bedding then would be an example of a location fabric defined by variations in composition .

Location fabric can be displayed by igneous rock especially those that crystallized gradually on

the sides of magma chambers. In these situations subtle variation in the chemistry or physical

condition in the magma chamber.

A. Laminations

Lamination is a small scale sequence of fine layers that occur in sedimentary rock. They are

normally smaller and les pronounced than bedding layers. Laminations are often 1cm or less in

thickness whereas bedding layers are greater than 1cm. lamination can occur as parallel structure

(parallel laminations) or in drift sets that make an angle with each other (across laminations). It

occurred in areas like at the front of methodist church Ogwugwu Mgbom Afikpo at Amaeta

Amasiri along Ibii Amasiri road and at an outcrop off Oziza road.

Fig17: Outcrop of thin bedded and laminated heterolithics along Afikpo-Oziza Road
B. Crossbedings
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Crossbeds are horizontal units that are internally composed of inclined layers; Three (3)
different types of cross beds were observed such as planar cross beds, trough cross beds and

herrigbore cross beds.

McKee and Weir (1953), defined a cross-stratum as a single layer of homogeneous or

gradational lithology deposited at an angle to the original dip of formation. Petti John (1975)

believes that cross beds result from the migration of sand waves, whose size determines the scale

of the cress-beds produced. They occurred mostly in the Macgregor sandstone unit (Afikpo

Sandstone) and Amasiri Sandstone ridges. They are product of the migration of sand waves

whose size determines the scale of the cross-strata ripple migration forms small scale cross

stratification (Allen, 1963) the regular, linear ripples or sand waves produce the simple planar

tabular cross-stratification. Their importance lies on the identification of sedimentary process

such as flow condition, rate and direction of sediment transport even though certain

characteristics of the cross stratification can be related to certain depositional environments.

Simple Planar/tabular cross beds were observed in the study area.

Fig18: Cross bedded Sandstone ridge outcrop at Ozaraukwu.

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C. Bedding planes

They are the upper and lower surfaces of beds. They are nearly flat surfaces of deposition

separating two layers of rock. They result due to a change in the grain size or composition

separating two layers of rock. They result due to change in the grain size or composition

separating two layers of rock. The result due to changes in the grain size or composition of the

particles being deposited. In some cases they appear sharp and in other they appear gradational

sharp boundaries which can be formed by sudden change in depositional condition by erosion

while gradational boundary is formed by a gradual change in depositional condition.

Most bedding is horizontal due to the fact that sediments from which the sedimentary was

formed were originally deposited in horizontal layers. Planar and erosional bedding contact was

observed opposite Ebonyi Hotels, Afikpo (Fig).

Fig19: Planar bedding contact at the Macgregor sandstone unit (Afikpo Sandstone) outcrop

opposite Ebonyi Hotels, Afikpo.

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3.4.2 Secondary Sedimentary Structures

Concretions

Concretion is a hard compact mass of matter formed by the precipitation of mineral cement

within the spaces between particles and is formed in sedimentary rocks.

Burrows

Burrows are sediment structure that is mainly biological in origin. Theses structures may result

from activity of organism that accompanies the deposition of the sediments.

Fig. 20: Ophiomorpha Burrows within in the sandstone in Ozaraukwu

3.3.3 Paleontology

Paleontology is the scientific study of prehistoric life. It includes the study of fossils to determine

organisms’ evolution and interactions with each other and their environment.

Paleontology lays on the border between biology and geology, and shares with archaeology a

border that is difficult to define. Paleontology has developed specialized sub-divisions, some of

which focus on different types of fossil organism namely Body fossils and Trace fossils.
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Body fossils

Fossils of organisms’ bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most

common types are wood, bones and shells. Fossilation is a rare event, and most fossils are

destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed after shell washing.

Trace fossils Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include coprolites and

marks left by feeding. Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data

source that is not limited to animals with easily – fossilized hard parts, and they reflect organism

behaviors.

The imprints of an orphimorpba burrows was found in location one at Ebonyi Hotel. Other trace

fossils, vertical and horizontal fossils called Aranocolite and orphamrophas respectively.

Gastropods

Gastropods are major of phylum mollusca and they are the most diverse class in the phylum. The

shells consist of crystals mainly of aragonite, the outer most layer is made up organic materials.

The shell is closed at the painted end, which is called apex. Some live in fresh water and land

while some live in shallow seas. Gastropods are a large tarwnomic class, with 60,000 – 80,000

living snail and slug species.

Bivalve

Bivalve is also a class of the phylum mollusca. Their geologic age is ordevician to recent, they

are bilateral symmetry. Their valves are closed ventrally by muscular contraction with shells

made of calcite (CaCO3), the number of shell layers vary from 2-3 morphology. Bivalve consists

of two convex valves in which the dorsal margin is under the hinge lines while the vertical

margin is opposite. Bivalve’s shells is opened by ligament and closed by valves.

Burrows
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A burrow is a hole or tunnel dug into the ground by an animal to create a space suitable for

habitation, temporary, refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion. Burrows provide a form of

shelter against predation and exposure to the elements, so the burrowing way of life is quite

popular among the animals. Burrows are also commonly preserved in the fossil record as a type

of trace fossil.

CHAPTER FOUR

PETROLOGY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

4.1 PETROLOGY

Petrology is the branch of geology that deals with the studies of the origin, composition,

distribution, structure and textural characteristics of rocks.

Petrology utilizes the classified fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical mineralogy and

chemical analyses to describe the composition and textures of rocks. Modern petrologist also

includes the principle of geochemistry and geophysics through the studies of geochemical trends

and cycles and uses of the modynamics data and experiments to better understand the origin of

rock. The studied area is predominately a sedimentary environment with little intrusive igneous

rock. The petrology of these rocks found in Afikpo environment is discussed below.

(1) Shale

(2) Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstones are arenaceous clastic sedimentary rocks, formed by the lithification of sand beds.

The size of the individual constituent sand grains vary between 2mm – 1/16mm. Since they are
 28

formed by the consolidation and cementation of sands (i.e Quartz grains), quartz is the chief

mineral constituent of sandstone. However, other minerals such as feldspar, mica, Garnet, are

also often present, though in small amounts. The cementing material may be siliceous,

argillaceous, and ferruginous or carbonate in nature.

Texture and structure

Depending upon their grain size, they may be of coarse or fine-grained varieties. They exhibit

common structures like cross bedding, ripple marks, rain marks, and fossils.

Varieties

Based upon their type of cementing material sandstones may be of the following varieties.

(I) Siliceous sandstone: They are those, which contain silica as the cementing material. They

are very hard and highly resistant to weathering and are called ortho quartzite. The fine-

grained variety, used as refractory is called Ganister.

(II) Calcareous sandstone: They are those, which contain calcium and magnesium carbonate

as the cementing material. These varieties readily wears act by weathering.

(III) Argillaceous sandstone: They are those in which clayey matter forms the cementing

matrix. Obviously, they have a very poor strength.

(IV) Ferruginous sandstone: They are those in which iron compounds form the cements. They

are usually dark coloured with reddish and brownish shades.

On the basis of mineralogical compaction, the following varieties of sandstone are

generally recognized.

(I) Arkoses: They are those sandstones, which are exceptionally rich in feldspar. They are

probably derived from granitic present rocks.

 29

(II) Greywacks: Greywacks are impure sandstone of grey colour, and contain quartz,

feldspars, and pieces of rocks like granite, felsite, shales etc. They are mostly argillaceous

in character.

Sandstones occur in thick or thin bed and sometimes as lenticular bodies with the beds of

other rocks.

Shale

Shales in general are argillaceous clastic sedimentary rocks, formed by clay particles of less than

0.01mm in size. They are general available in variety of colours such as grey, red, purple, green,

black etc depending upon they are generally soft and brittle rocks, which crumble easily under

the hammer.

The common stay minerals present in shale are kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite. Other

minerals such as mica, chlorite quartz, Glauconite etc may also be present in small quantities.

Beside these minerals, several impurities in the form of carbonaceous material and calcareous

particles may also be present.

Texture

Shale is a very fine-grained rock, and the variable shape of the various clay minerals present can

be recognized only under an election microscope or by X-ray analysis. Though shales are general

porous, but the pores are so minute, that they remain imperable. The linear arrangement of flaky

minerals parallel to bedding enables the shale to split into parallel flat fragments. This important

characteristic feature of shales is called fissility.

Structures

Shales may exhibit structures such as mud cracks, rain prints, and ripple marks, concretionary

structure and some organic structures.

 30

Varieties

Depending upon their composition, the following varieties of shales are generally recognized:

(I) Calcareous shale: These are those, which contain calcium and magnesium carbonate as

the prominent accessory constituent.

(II) Siliceous shale or sandy shale: These are those, which contain some prominent quantities

of sand.

(III) Carbonaceous or Bituminous shale: These are those, which are rich in organic matter,

especially carbon, and are generally black.

(IV) Alum shales: These are those, which are rich in iron sulphide (pyrite) or iron sulphate.

(V) Oil shale: These are actually those carbonaceous shale, which yield oil on destructive

distillation.

4.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS

A sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to access the particle size distribution of a

granular material. The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material

performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic or organic

granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite, feldspars coal; down to a

minimum size depending on the exact method.

 31

Fig. 21: Udden-Wentworth grain size scale for sediments.

4.2.1 Preparation

In order to perform the test, a sample of the aggregate must be obtained from the source. To

prepare the sample, the aggregate should be mixing thoroughly and be reduced to suitable size

for testing. The total rate of the sample is also required.

4.2.2 Procedure

A gradation test is performed on a sample of aggregate in a laboratory. A typical sieve analysis

involves a nested column of sieves with wire mesh cloth (screen). A representative weighed

sample is poured into the top sieve which has the largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in
 32

the column has smaller openings than the one above. At the base is a round pan, called the

receiver.

The sieve analysis was carried out with 50g on each of four samples analysed. The column is

typically placed in an electrical shaker. The samples were sieved for 10 minutes with a jurgen’s

laboratories sieve shaker. The sieve operation was out by the consistent lateral and vertical

vibration of the shaker. After the shaking is complete the material on each sieve is weighed. The

weight of the sample of each sieve is then divided by the total weight to give a percentage

retained on each sieve. The sieve of the average particle on each sieve is then analyzed to get a

cut-off point or specific size range.

4.2.3 Apparatus Used

 Stack of sieve including pan and cover.

 Weighing balance

 Rubber pestle and mortar (for crushing the sand or soil if lumped)

 Electrical sieve shaker.

The frequency percentage was plotted against grain size (in Φ) on an arithmetic graph paper to

obtain histograms. The cumulative frequency graph was plotted using a semi-log graph paper

from which critical percentile values were extrapolated for the calculation of the statistical grain-

size frequency distribution parameters i.e Mean, Standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis.

Moment calculation method was also to get the statistical parameters from which plots of binary

diagrams were made.

4.1.4 Results
 33

The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size on the graph; the

sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first

find the percent retained in each sieve. To do so, the following equation is used.

% Retained = WSives x 100%

WTotal

where WSieve is the weight of aggregate in the sieve

WTotal is the total weight of the aggregate

The next step is to find the cumulative percent of aggregate that is retained in each sieve and the

amount in the previous sieve. The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by

subtracting the percent retained from 100%

% Cumulative pass = 100% - % cumulative Retained.

Parameters used for sieve analysis are:

(1) Mean: This is the overall average grain size in a grain size frequency distribution. It also

influences the energy of deposition.

(2) Mode: This is the most frequently occurring grain size in a frequency distribution curve.

(3) Median: This is the average grain size in the grain size frequency distribution.

(4) Standard deviation: This measures the actual degree of uniformity of the grain (sorting).

(5) Skewness: This measures the non-normality of the size frequency distribution. It

indicates direction of the skewness of sediment.

(6) Kurtosis: This measures the roundedness of the size distribution frequency. It measures

the ratio of the spread in the central part of the curve.

VERBAL TERMS

MEAN(X) STD (SORTING)

 34

-1.0 granule <0.35 very well sorted

-1.0-0.0 very coarse 0.35-0.50 well sorted

0.0-1.0 coarse 0.50-1.00 moderately sorted

1.0-2.0 medium 1.00-2.00 poorly sorted

2.0-3.0 fine 2.00-4.00 very poor sorted

3.0-4.0 very fine >4.00 extremely poorly sorted

SKEWNESS (δ) KURTOSIS (Kg)

-1.0 to -0.30 very negatively skewed <0.67 very platykurtic

-0.30 to -0.10 negatively skewed 0.67-0.90 platykurtic

-0.01-0.10 nearly symmetrical 0.90-1.11 mesokurtic

0.10-0.30 positive skewed 1.11-1.50 leptokurtic

0.30-1.00 very positive skewed 1.50-3.00 very leptokurtic

>3.00 extremely leptokurtic

Table 3: Comments on graphic measures

Locations Mean Mode Median Sorting Kurtosis Skewness Interpretation
(Ø) (Ø) (Ø)

L2 0.92 1.0 0.95 0.75 1.99 -0.02 Coarse Grained Sand,

Moderately sorted, Very
leptokurtic, Near symmetrical.
L3B 0.77 1.0 0.80 0.82 2.68 0.08 Coarse Grained sand,
Moderately sorted, Very
 35

Leptokurtic,
Nearly Symmetrical
L4 0.93 1.0 0.90 0.78 3.74 0.14 Coarse Grained sand,
Moderately sorted, Extremely
leptokurtic, fine skewed
L5 0.86 1.0 0.95 0.75 1.92 -0.08 Coarse Grained sand,
Moderately sorted, Very
Leptokurtic, Near
symmetrical.
L14 0.70 1.0 0.80 0.71 2.16 -0.14 Coarse Grained sand,
Moderately well sorted, Very
Leptokurtic, Coarse skewed.
L15 0.95 1.0 0.90 0.69 2.87 0.27 Coarse Grained sand,
Moderately well sorted, Very
Leptokurtic, Coarse skewed
L16 0.94 1.0 0.92 0.65 2.42 0.21 Coarse Grained,
Moderately well sorted, Very
Leptokurtic, Fine Skewed

4.1.5 Cumulative Frequency Curve and Histogram Analysis

Three processes operating in a depositional explain textural parameters. They are traction,

saltation and suspension. Visher (1969) demonstrated that the segments on a cumulative

frequency curve, represents traction load, saltation load and suspension load. The beach sands

were deposited purely by saltation while river channel sands are by traction. The sediment at the

end of the distribution results from deposition of particles from suspension and at the coarse end
 36

by rolling or sliding. Beach sands are better sorted than river sands. Therefore, the slopes or

curves for beach sands tend to be steeper (Friedman and Sanders, 1978).

Table4: sieve analysis data for location 2

Grain Size Weight Corrected Cummulative % Cummulative

(Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Retained Weight Retained
(g) (%)
-1.0 0.61 0.62 0.62 1.23

-0.5 2.61 2.64 3.25 6.51

0.5 6.02 6.08 9.34 18.68

1.0 18.64 18.84 28.18 56.36

1.5 15.10 15.26 43.44 86.88

2.0 0.13 0.13 43.57 87.14

2.5 3.57 3.61 47.18 94.36

3.0 1.05 1.06 48.24 96.48

3.5 1.23 1.24 49.48 98.97

4.0 0.28 0.28 49.77 99.54

4.5 0.23 0.23 50.00 100.00

49.47 50.00

Fig 22a: Cumulative weight verse phi graph for location 2

 37

Fig 22b: Histogram curve for location 2

4.1.6 Environmental Interpretation

The standard deviation has been demonstrated to be a very useful parameter in environmental

discrimination and in understanding paleo-depositional dynamics (Folk and ward, 1957;

Friedman, 1961,1967 ,1979).

1. Beach, shallow marine shelf have very well sorted to well sorted sands with standard deviation

values ranging from 0.3-0.5

2. Rivers. Lagoons, distal marine shelf and distal dunes have moderately sorted sands with

standard deviation values ranging from 0.5-1.0

3. Some rivers and all glacio-fluvial regimes have poorly sorted to extremely poorly sorted sands

with standard deviation values ranging from 1.0-2.6

 38

The skewness has been shown to have significant information in environmental discrimination,

studying of environment mixing and depositional processes (Folk and Ward 1957; Freidman

1961, 1962, 1967 and 1979; Moiola and Weiser, 1968).

 Sands of continental environment (rivers and inland dunes) have mostly positively

skewed distributions.

 Marine sands across continental shelf have mostly negatively skewed distribution

 Edges of continental shelf (much deeper waters) have positively skewed distributions

The mean is the average grain size in a size frequency distribution. The geologic significance of

the mean is that it presents the overall size of the sediments as influenced by the source of

supply. Hence, result of calculations of the textural parameters shows that the sample is a

medium grained, poorly sorted, positively (fine) skewed and leptokurtic sandstone. Histogram

plot suggests a wide range of grain sizes that are dominant within the sandstone based on their

individual weight percentiles, which is from Ф0 to Ф1.75. The cumulative frequency plot on the

log-normal graph also suggests that the sediments were transported is dominated by both

saltation and suspension acting on the sediment at the same time in a relatively moderate to low

energy environment where by the coarse grained sediments were transported simultaneously in

traction and saltation in a moderate energy medium and subsequent deposition of few suspended

grain particles in a low energy. Sahu (1958), suggested that most positively skewed grain size

population are transported in a low energy medium. Using the derivatives obtained from the

graphic method of to generate different bivariate plots, such as the combined plotting of the

textural parameters, viz.

 39

Mean size vs. standard deviation, mean size vs skewness, standard deviation vs skewness , and

mean size vs standard deviation, shows that concentration of the points, in all the four bivariant

plot, lie on the right hand sides specified for river deposits.

4.3 PEBBLE MORPHOMETRY

A rock is described as pebble when the grain size ranges from 2mm – 4mm. Pebble

morphometry is a textural study of the geometric properties of pebbles. Such properties studied

are grain size, grain shape.

The apparatus used for pebble morphometry is vienier callipper in which three main axis of the

pebble are measured such as log (2), the intermediate (I) and the short (S) axis.

Parameters used for the morphometric studies are;

(1) Size: The L, S and I axis are measured in vienier callipper.

(2) Roundness: This estimates the proportion of the convex part of the pebble along its

maximum projection perimeter.

(3) Form: This is the relationship between L, I and S axis, it is useful because two pebble

with different L:I:S ratio may have the same maximum sphericitly. Form therefore, serve

to accommodate such pebble. It is given as

L–I

L–S

(4) Elongation ratio: It is given as I/L. It is regarded as environmental sensitive.

(5) Flatness ratio: This is the ratio of the short to that of long (S/L). The flatness ratio of

classified to fluvial pebble are 0.25 – 0.35 while the flatness ratio assigned to marine

pebble is 0.40 – 0.50.

 40

(6) Oblate prolate index (OPI): This is the measure of the closeness of the intermediate axis

to the long axis or to the short axis. It is given as

Importance of pebble morphometry in environmental diagenesis

It helps to determine the environment where the pebbles were deposited.

Table 5: Results of Peble morphometry for Afikpo and environs

S/ Axes(mm) Roundness S2 L1 S/L I/L L-I L-S L-I ( S2 )1/3 OP For

N % INDEX m
L-S L-1
na
L 1 S me

1 2.055 1.821 1.074 40 1.153 3.742 0.523 0.886 0.234 0.981 0.238 0.675 -4.990 E

2 2.071 1.931 1.805 40 3.258 3.999 0.872 0.932 0.140 0.266 0.526 0.815 0.298 C

3 1.835 1.761 1.575 40 2.481 3.231 0.722 0.960 0.074 0.260 0.285 0.916 -2.977 CE

4 2.011 1.801 1.451 30 2.105 3.622 0.842 0.896 0.210 0.560 0.375 0.834 -7.484 C

5 1.605 1.402 1.351 50 1.825 2.250 0.842 0.874 0.173 0.254 0.799 0.932 3.551 C

6 1.466 1.262 1.234 30 1.523 1.850 0.782 0.861 0.204 0.232 0.879 0.937 4.846 C

7 1.301 1.057 1.019 40 1.083 1.357 0.782 0.812 0.244 0.282 0.865 0.909 4.667 C

8 1.505 1.241 1.142 30 1.304 1.868 0.759 0.825 0.264 0.363 0.727 0.887 2.990 CE

9 1.902 1.626 1.201 40 1.442 3.093 0.631 0.855 0.276 0.701 0.397 0.775 -1.632 CB

10 1.820 1.250 1.060 30 1.124 2.275 0.582 0.687 0.570 0.760 0.750 0.790 4.295 CB

11 1.811 1.440 1.000 50 1.000 2.608 0.552 0.795 0.371 0.811 0.457 0.727 -0.778 CB

12 1.520 1.152 1.030 30 1.061 1.751 0.678 0.758 0.368 0.490 0.751 0.846 3.702 CE

13 1.720 1.632 1.202 40 1.445 2.807 0.699 0.949 0.088 0.518 0.170 0.801 -4.721 CP

14 1.741 1.205 0.021 30 0.000 2.098 0.012 0.692 0.536 1.720 0.312 0 0 VP

15 1.751 1.642 1.220 40 1.488 2.875 0.697 0.938 0.109 0.531 0.205 0.802 -4.323 CP

16 1.716 1.446 1.381 30 1.907 2.481 0.805 0.843 0.270 0.335 0.806 0.915 3.801 C

17 1.337 1.412 1.342 50 0.594 1.231 0.577 0.689 0.416 0.566 0.735 0.783 4.072 CB
 41

18 1.521 1.412 1.342 50 1.800 2.148 0.832 0.928 0.109 0.179 0.609 0.944 1.310 C

19 1.705 1.602 1.432 50 2.051 2.731 0.840 0.940 0.103 0.273 0.377 0.909 -1.464 C

20 1.940 1.720 1.330 40 1.769 3.337 0.686 0.887 0.220 0.610 0.361 0.809 -2.026 CB

21 1.740 1.720 0.980 70 0.960 2.993 0.563 0.989 0.020 0.760 0.026 0.685 -8.419 E

22 1.840 1.640 1.230 40 1.513 3.018 0.734 0.891 0.200 0.610 0.408 0.795 -1.253 CB

23 1.450 1.230 0.980 70 0.960 1.784 0.676 0.848 0.220 0.470 0.468 0.814 -0.473 CE

24 1.590 1.140 1.230 40 1.513 1.813 0.774 0.717 0.450 0.360 1.250 0.941 9.689 C

25 1.450 1.350 1.170 70 1.369 1.958 0.807 0.931 0.100 0.280 0.357 0.887 -1.771 C

26 1.690 1.590 1.110 70 1.232 2.687 0.657 0.841 0.100 0.580 0.172 0.771 -4.992 C

27 1.450 1.210 0.820 70 0.672 1.754 0.566 0.834 0.240 0.630 0.381 0.726 -2.102 CB

28 1.330 1.210 1.130 40 1.267 1.609 0.850 0.910 0.120 0.200 0.600 0.923 1.176 C

29 1.450 1.230 0.720 40 0.518 1.784 0.497 0.884 0.220 0.730 0.301 0.659 -4.004 E

30 1.570 1.330 1.170 40 1.369 2.088 0.745 0.874 0.240 0.400 0.600 0.868 1.342 C

31 1.350 1.230 1.210 40 1.464 1.661 0.896 0.911 0.120 0.140 0.857 0.958 3.984 C

32 1.470 1.230 1.110 30 1.232 1.880 0.550 0.837 0.240 0.360 0.667 0.881 2.211 CE

33 1.350 1.230 1.270 70 1.613 1.661 0.941 0.911 0.120 0.080 1.500 0.990 10.626 C

34 1.450 1.370 0.980 50 0.960 1.987 0.676 0.945 0.080 0.470 0.170 0.786 -4.881 CP

35 1.370 1.260 1.250 70 1.563 1.726 0.912 0.920 0.110 0.120 0.912 0.968 4.572 C

36 1.470 1.130 0.880 50 0.774 1.661 0.599 0.768 0.340 0.590 0.576 0.774 1.268 CB

37 1.350 0.820 0.270 50 0.073 1.107 0.200 0.607 0.530 1.080 0.491 0.399 0.450 VB

38 1.390 1.330 1.130 70 1.277 1.849 0.813 0.957 0.060 0.260 0.231 0.884 -3.308 C

39 1.232 1.230 1.110 70 1.232 1.515 0.901 0.998 0.002 0.122 0.016 0.934 -5.371 C

40 1.350 1.330 1.110 50 1.232 1.78 0.822 0.985 0.022 0.24 0.083 0.882 -5.072 C

41 1.370 1.150 1.130 40 1.277 1.576 0.825 0.839 0.220 0.240 0.917 0.932 5.054 C

42 1.250 1.130 0.720 70 0.518 1.413 0.576 0.904 0.120 0.530 0.226 0.712 -4.756 CP

43 1.470 1.250 1.130 70 1.277 1.838 0.769 0.850 0.220 0.340 0.647 0.885 1.911 C

44 1.370 1.150 0.910 70 0.828 1.576 0.664 0.839 0.220 0.460 0.478 0.805 -0.331 CE

45 1.250 0.960 0.350 70 0.123 1.200 0.286 0.768 0.290 0.900 0.322 0.464 -6.223 VB

46 1.470 1.250 0.720 50 0.518 1.838 0.490 0.850 0.220 0.750 0.293 0.434 -4.224 P

47 1.370 1.270 1.130 40 1.277 1.740 0.825 0.927 0.100 0.240 0.417 0.900 -0.006 C

48 1.630 1.390 1.270 70 1.613 2.266 0.779 0.853 0.240 0.360 0.667 0.893 2.143 C
 42

49 1.840 1.540 1.450 40 2.103 2.834 0.788 0.837 0.300 0.390 0.769 0.905 3.413 C

50 1.720 1.230 1.200 40 1.440 2.116 0.698 0.715 0.490 0.520 0.942 0.880 6.332 CE

To 78.4 67.450 54.511 64.14 108 34.59 41.38 11.00 23.904 26.37 40.341 20.563

tal

A 1.57 1.349 1.0902 1.283 2.16 0.682 0.828 0.22 0.4781 0.527 0.807 0.411
V
G

Fig 23: plot of average pebble on Sneed and Folk’s (1958). Sphericity form diagram.
 43

Fig 24: Plot of Roundness versus Elongation

Fig 25: Plot of Flatness Ratio versus Sphericity

 44

Fig 26: plot of Sphericity versus OP index

Table 6: Summary of environmental diagnosis from pebble morphometry analysis for Afikpo
and environs

Morphometric Characteristics Environmental References

parameter exhibited by the indications
pebbles
Roundness Mean value of 48.8% Fluviatile Lutig (1962)
Flatness Ratio Mean value of 0.682 Fluviatile Stratten (1974)
Plot of roundness vs 12% fluvial, 18% Littoral to transitional Sames (1966)
elongation littoral, 10%
transitional
MPS 0.807 Fluviatile Dobkins and Folk
(1970)
Pebble Form Compact =48% Fluviatile Sneed and Folk
Compact bladed = (1958)
16%
Compact elongated =
14%
OPI Fluviatile Dobkins and Folk
0.332 (1970)
OPI vs MPSI 90% River Fluvial Dobkins and Folk
10% beach (1970)
 45

Interpretation
Roundness is a poor indicator of depositional environment, Sneed and Folk (1958) observed that

pebble roundness increased upstream from beaches to river, roundness less than 35% typifies

fluvial environment while roundness more than 45% characterizes littoral environments. The

average roundness value of the pebbles from the study area is 48.8% with 70% of the pebble

suite having roundness varying from 40-50%. This result strongly suggests a littoral to

transitional environment of deposition.

The sphericity (M.P.S.I) value for the Afikpo formation pebbles (0.807) fall above the 0.66

sphericity line that separates beach and river pebbles. Lower sphericiy values are typical of

beach pebbles while higher sphericity values indicate fluvial setting. The sphericity value of

Afikpo and environs is 0.807 which is way above the 0.66 line and therefore indicative of a

likely fluvial origin.

Various plots also agree with fluvial setting for the investigated pebbles for instance the plot of

roundness versus elongation for the pebbles following Sames, shows 18% of the pebble in the

littoral field, 10% in the transitional and 12% in the fluviatile field. Similarly, the bivariate plot

of flatness (FR) versus maximum projection sphericity index (M.P.S.I) shows majority of the

pebbles falling within the fluvial field. Furthermore the scatter plot of sphericity versus O.P

index which is more diagnostic of fluvial depositional environment shows 90% of the pebbles

from Afikpo and environs occurring within the beach part environment and 10% within the part

of the plot. Indication therefore is that the pebble beds in Afikpo and environs belonging to

Anambra basin were formed under a fluvial regime.

 46

4.4 BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

Biostratigraphy is a branch of stratigraphy that is concerned with fossils and their use in dating

rock formations. It is inferred that the Amaizu shale is part of the Nkporo shale (late Campanian-

early Maastrichtian). The paleoenvironment of deposition of these sediments is characterized by

fossils such as Ammobaculites sp and Haplophragmoides sp.

Foraminifera Biostratigraphic analysis was done on shale samples collected from different beds

in six (6) locations of the study area with the aim of recovering foraminifera which could be

further used in dating and interpretation of paleoenvironment of the study area.

4.1.1 Laboratory Materials

Instruments used in the laboratory for this study includes the following;

1. Washing sieve (63um)

2. Mortar and pestle

3. Plastic plates with cover lid

4. De-ionized water

5. Methylated spirit

6. Olympus microscope

7. Picking brush

8. Microscope slides

9. Microfossil album
 47

10. Digital camera

4.3.1 Sample Preparation

The shale samples went through some stages of treatment during its preparation. Each of these

stages played important roles in enhancing the microfossil contained in the individual samples.

The stages of sample preparation are described below;

Sample Disaggregation

About 50g of fresh shale sample collected from the study area were well labeled and

disaggregated or broken into small fragment with the use of mortar and pestle. This is the first

stage in the preparation of the samples. The disaggregated sample ranges in size from 1mm-

10mm. After disaggregation, each sample then placed in a separate proper labeled plate with a

cover lid.

Soaking

After the mechanical disaggregation of the sample using mortar and pestle, methylated spirit was

poured into each sample. Care was taken to ensure that the chemical penetrates properly into the

shale samples. This chemical treatment is to further disaggregate the sample and to allow for

easy washing and concentration of the microfossils. This soaking was allowed for 24 hours.

De-Ionized Water Treatment

In this stage of sample preparation, de-ionized water was poured into each of the sample and

allowed for 24 hours to ensure proper disintegration of the samples and neutralization of the

previous methylated spirit added before proceeding to the next stage.

Washing and Sieving Of Sample

200 mesh sizes (63 micron) were used in washing the samples. The washing process is to aid in

the removal of mud and disintegrates the shale materials to pass out through the sieve and
 48

concentrated the fragments containing the microfossils. The microfossil concentrate is then put

back into the plate and allowed to settle and after some minutes the water is then decanted.

Drying

The sample fragments are either sun dried or oven dried to make them ready for study under

microscope. In this study, the concentrate was sun dried for a period of 1-2 days, after which the

dried samples were bottled and labeled properly. The labeled samples were then taken to the

micro paleontology lab for viewing and picking of the microfossils.

Sample Picking

After the samples have been prepared as described above, the next step taken was studying the

sample through the microscope to identify their microfossil contents. Each sample was spread on

a flat tray and mounted on the microfossil. The samples were then viewed through the

microscope at a magnification of x40. Conscious effort was made to identify as many

microfossils as possible in each sample.

Each microfossil seen in a sample is identified and named using a comprehensive microfossil

album. Diagrams or pictures of the fossil were taken where necessary. Afterward, the fossil was

picked using picking brush. The picked microfossil were carefully placed or sorted in a

microscope slide for future use.

 49

Result for foraminifera Biostratigraphy

Table 7: Foraminifera recovered from the samples

SAMPLE FORAMINIFERA TYPE AMOUNT

(location)

S1A Ammobaculites amabensis 1

Lenticulila sp. 3

S1A middle bed Herdegella detrioensis 1

Haplophragmoides sp. 2

S10 Preabulimiona sp. 2

S12 Gavelinella intermedia 1

Total 10

Result Interpretation

The table 5 above shows Foraminifera distribution and count across the study area. The table

indicates that the shale samples analysis yielded seven (7) foraminifera species with abundance

of 10 foraminfera. All of the foraminifera species recovered are benthic species. The age and

paleoenvironment of sediment in the study area are discussed below base ob foraminifera species

recovered.
 50

A: Age of Nkporo shale

Sample 1 Location A

This sample yielded 4 foraminifera forms of two diverse species. The foraminifera species

identified in this sample are Lenticulila sp. and Ammobaculites amabensis. The presence of the

forams suggest a late Campanian age for the deposition of the sediments.

Sample Location 1A middle bed

This sample yielded three foraminifera species. The foraminifera species identified in this

sample include; Herdegella detrioensis and Haplophrogmoides sp., these foraminifera

assemblages are common with Nkporo shale and has an age ranging from early Campanian to

late Maastrichtian. (Petters and Edet 1996).

Sample Location 10

The sample yielded two foraminifera forms of Preabulimina sp., this foraminifera is common

with the Nkporo shale and have an age ranging from the early Campaninan to late Maastrichtian.

(Petters1979).

Sample Location 12

The sample yielded a foraminifera form of Gavelinella sp. which suggest an early Maastrichtian

age of deposition for the sediments.

B. Paleoecology

Micropaleontological evidences suggest a normal marine environment for the Nkporo shale unit.

This is so, as all the foraminifera species recovered from the samples were benthic foraminiferas

species, capable of tolerating normal marine salinities. Some of the forams encountered in the

samples suggested a stressed and oxygen deficient environment. The presence of foraminifera

species such as Ammobaculites amabensis suggest an upper bathyal, normal marine environment
 51

with oxygen deficiency or a high oxygen influx. The foram Preabulimina sp. tolerate normal

marine salinities. The presence of Ammobaculites amabensis suggests an inner shelf, upper

bathyal, normal marine environment, with a slightly reduced salinity, while the foraminifera

species, Haplophragmoides sp. suggest an outer shelf, upper bathyal, normal marine

environment (Gebhardt, 2006).

 52

A. Ammobaculites amabensis B. Lenticulila sp

C. Herdegella detrioensis D. Preabulimina sp

E. Haplophragmoides sp F. Gavelinella intermedia

Fig 27: Foraminifera species recovered from the sample

 53

CHAPTER FIVE

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to

their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of

present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in

the rocks, the ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and

geometries. This understanding of the dynamic of the stress field can be linked to important

events in the regional geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a

particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g. mountain

building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.

5.1 TECTONIC STRUCTURES

A regularly repeating form of occurrence of rocks in the earth’s crust, in the broad sense, the

term “tectonic structure” is applied to various parts of the earth’s crust that are formed by the

combination of a number of different smaller structural forms. The most important

characteristics for the classification of tectonic structure are scale, morphology, and genesis.

A distinction is scale, morphology, and genesis and tectonic structures of magmatic bodies.

Fundamental structural forms include layers, folds, joints, faults and unconformity.

5.1.1 Fault

A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been

significant displacement along the fracture as a result of earth movement large fault result from

the action of plate tectonic forces with the largest forming the boundaries between the plate such

sub-duction zone or transform fault.

 54

Evidence of fault

(1) Omission and repetition of strata

(2) Discontinuity of structure

(3) Occurrence of silken sides.

Types of fault

There are different types of fault namely;

(1) Dip-slip fault

(2) Strike-slip fault

(3) An oblique – slip fault.

But we will be looking at strike-slip fault because it occurred in Afikpo terrain at location 14

along Afikpo Amasiri road.

Strike-slip fault

It occurred at Ozaraukwu off Afikpo Amasiri Road. The fault surface is usually near vertical and

the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip

faults with left-lateral motion are also known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion

are also known as dextral faults. In Afikpo basin, transform faulting was reactivated during late

maastrichtian terminal tectonic event. The basin was modified by dextral strike-slip activity.

Simply – slip fault is present in the Afikpo sub-basin and it is separated by a small river. The

trend of the fault plane is N330O, N150O.

 55

Fig28: Sandstone outcrop with a strike slip fault located in Afikpo

5.1.2 Joint

Joint refers to a fracture in rock where the displacement associated with the opening of the

fracture is greater than the displacement due to lateral movement in the plane of the fracture (up,

down or sideways) of one side relative to the other. Typically, there is little to no lateral

movement across joints. This makes joints different from a fault which is defined as a fracture in

rock in which one side slides laterally past the other with a displacement that is greater than the

separation between the blocks on either side of the fracture.

Joints form in solid, hard rock that is stretched such that its brittle strength is exceeded. When

this happens the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principals stress and

perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being

stretched). This leads to the development of a single sub-parallel joint set. Continued

deformation may lead to development of one or more additional joint sets.

 56

Joints can be classified into three groups depending on their geometrical relationship with the

country rock.

(1) Strike joints: Joints, which run parallel to the direction of strike of country rock, are

called strike joint.

(2) Dip joints: Joints, which run parallel to the direction of dip of country rocks, are called

dip joints.

(3) Oblique joint: Joint, which run oblique to the dip and strike direction of the country rocks

are called “oblique joints”.

In Afikpo within location 5 at Ebonyi Hotel Afikpo was where joint was noticed and the trend of

the joint is N294O, N114O.

Fig29: Sandstone outcrop with joints located in Amasiri.

 57

CHAPTER SIX

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, HYDROGEOLOGY, ENVIRONMENTAL AND

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

6.1 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Economic mineral deposits are accumulations of metallic and non-metallic substances or

chemical compound in the earth’s crust that could be mined profitably. Appreciable economic

deposits such as Shale, Gypsum, Sand and Laterites can be found in the study area.

6.1.1 Shale

The shale found at the study area has high drying properties and this made them useful for

manufacturing purposes. The values if mixed with the clay with low firing and low drying

shrinkage may be useful in the manufacturing of sewage pipes, roofing tiles and paving bricks.

6.1.2 Gypsum

Gypsum is principally of sedimentary origin and is among the minerals grouped as marine

evaporites. It is a common mineral consisting of hydrating calcium sulphate (CaSO4, 2H 2O). It is

formed by precipitation of calcium sulphate from marine water or sea water by the action of

sulphuric acid or calcium containing materials in volcanic regions and as a product of the action

of sulphuric acid on limestone in clayey areas. It is frequently associated with marine saline

deposit such as limestone and shale. Other minerals associated with gypsum are calcite and

pyrite. The presence of gypsum has been categorized as digenetic deposit because genetically the

deposit is categorized as evaporates. Economically, gypsum is an important mineral used as a

primary input in the manufacture of Portland cement as well as paint, fertilizer, textile, rubber,

plaster of Paris, chalk and paper. It is also used in the manufacture of ceramics, veener base, wall

boards and metal precision instrument.

 58

6.1.3 Sand

Unconsolidated and friable sands are found in the study area mostly at along Afikpo Abakaliki

road and if these sands are mined they will be very useful in construction of houses, roads,

bridges, dams, and other engineering activities.

6.1.4 Laterites

In the study area, these ferruginised residual deposits occur as loosely compacted ironstone.

Lateritic soil is known to be responsible for reduction in soil fertility commonly found in the

crop of the affected area. The soil is of little importance for agricultural activities because of its

deficiency in human and other necessary plant nutrients.

Economically, laterites and ferruginised deposits can be used as sources of good engineering

material for construction of houses, dams, roads, and embankment.

6.2 HYDROGEOLOGY

Hydrogeology (hydro-meaning water and geology meaning the study of the earth) is the area of

geology that deal with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rock of the

earth’s crust (commonly in aquifers). The term geohydrology is often used interchangeably.

Afikpo sub-basin is among one of the major basin in Nigeria sedimentary environ that has great

potentials/ reservoir of underground water recharge and discharge, for instance the spring found

opposite Ebonyi Hotel called why worry spring. Hence, Afikpo sub-basin is closely related with

it adjacent basin Anambra basin that a lot of aquifers and reservoirs.

Most of the sandstone found in Afikpo contains good aquifers and as a result, supply large

quantity of underground water to the local communities and its neighboring shale Cross River.

Factors that affect the occurrence and distribution of groundwater

The main causes that effect the distribution of groundwater in Afikpo areas are.
 59

Porosity and Permeability

Porosity is the percentage or amount of voids space in a rock. It is also a measurement of the

ability of rock to hold water.

Mathematically: Porosity (J) can be expressed as volume of pores all over bulk volume.

J = Volume of pore => Vp x 100

Bulk volume V0

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous rock material or unconsolidated rock to allow

fluids to pass through e.g sandstone, congolermate and limestone.

The higher the porosity, and permeability of a rock the higher the ability it will have to give

water.

The following term are used to describe the rocks found in Afikpo based on hydrogeology.

(1) Aquifer: An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or

unconsolidated rock (sandstone, siltstone, gravel) from which groundwater can be

extracted using water well.

(2) Aquiclude: An impermeable body of rock or stratum of sediment that acts as a barrier to

the flow of groundwater e.g sold granite.

(3) Aquitard: Is a bed of low permeability adjacent to an aquifer; may serve as a storage unit

for groundwater, although it does not yield water readily e.g shale. It is normal deposited

below sandstone, which is a good aquifer.

6.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is the application of the geological science to engineering practice for the

purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, contraction, operation
 60

and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and adequately provide for mechanics,

soil mechanic, geotechnic, groundwater, hydrology and civil design but we will look at rock.

The study of engineering geology is based on rock, which is defined as the aggregate of minerals

and also as natural substances that require mechanical force or blasting for their excavation.

According to engineering sense rock is classified on the bases of strength, hardness, durability.

So looking at the rock found in Afikpo by noting their characteristics will enable engineering

geologist to know which will serve as a good material for engineering purpose/work.

Sandstone, Shale, siltstone, clay, limestone, mudstone, and dolerite.

Sandstone

Sandstone is a classic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains.

Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the most common

minerals in the earth’s crust. Sandstones grain sizes range from 0.0625mm – 2mm.

Characteristics

The characteristic of sandstone in engineering geology is that it’s a moderate durability rock.

This characteristic made it to be a good material for engineering work.

Siltstone

Siltstone is classic sedimentary rock, which has a grain size in the silt range, finer than sandstone

and coarser than claystone. The grain size of siltstone is 1/16 – 1/256mm. Siltstone differs

significantly from sandstones due to their smaller pores and higher propensity for containing a

significant clay fraction. Although often mistaken as shale, siltstone lacks the fissility and

laminations, which are typical of shale.

Characteristics

The characteristics of siltstone based on engineering geology are:

 61

(1) It is a moderate strength rock

(2) It is also moderate hard rock

(3) Its fairly good load bearing capacity.

These characteristics have made it a good engineering material.

Shale

Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay

minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. Shale is

characteristic by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering or bedding less than 1cm in

thickness, called fissility.

Characteristic

The following are the characteristics of shale based on engineering geology

(1) It’s a low strength rock

(2) It’s has a low durability rock

(3) It’s hard rock.

These features shown that it is not good for engineering work.

Claystone

Claystone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay-sized particles (less than

1/256mm in diameter) claystone does not include clay shales, which are rocks that are laminated

or easily split into thin layers. Claystones are also distinct from mudstone, which are partly

hardened muds that slake when wetted, claystone is fully hardened material.

Characteristics

(1) Low durability rock

(2) Hard rock

 62

(3) Long strength rock

It is not good for engineering purpose.

Dolerite

Dolerite is the median grained, intrusive equivalent of basalt. It usually occurs as dykes, plugs or

sill. It’s hypabyssal, It is an equivalent.

Dolerite is a mafic, holocrystalline, subvolvanic rock. It is dominated by plagroclase and

pyroxene.

Characteristics

(1) It is hard

(2) It is durable

(3) It is a very high strength rock.

They are not good for construction because it has a very high temperature mineral.

Limestone

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate). The

primary source of this calcite is usually marine organisms. These organisms secrete shales that

settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic.

Ooze – supersaturated meteoric waters may also deposit secondary calcite.

Therefore from all these facts so far, it simply means that Afikpo environment is mainly

composed of good geological materials that can be used for engineering purposes by engineering

geologist.

Therefore rocks that are predominantly quartz are generally stronger than that are predominantly

clay minerals. Also fine-grained feature presents the strongest rocks, reason is that the joining

line is lesser in fine-grained and hence failure planes are greatly reduced. They higher the
 63

porosity in rock, the weaker the rock it and the higher the specific gravity of the rock the stronger

the rock is.

The more water a rock contain the less strength it will have. Basically, during the mapping a

good lithologic for construction was observed and studied which was the silicious sandstone.

6.4 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

Environmental geology deals with the study of adverse geologic conditions associated with the

earth rust bon a local or regional scale. Geologic hazards are natural geologic process which also

influences the geologic cycle. They are caused by the interplay of internal and external forces,

which are responsible for the relative movements of the earth as well as the changes in

landscape. The forces could be in form of tectonic forces (internal) or mass-wasting and erosion

(external). Tectonic forces are usually associated with plate movement and build up of pressures

within the earth.

Geologic hazard observed in the study area is majorly landslides and erosion.

6.4.1 Erosion

Erosion is a global phenomenon that tends to reduce land surface by removing loose soil and

rocks and transporting them to another site. Erosional signatures observed in various locations

are splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion.

6.4.2 Landslides and Slumps

The quarrying activities in the study area pose a great geologic hazard. Cases of sliding were

observed in the study area, this could be attributed to the disturbances by the quarrying activity

to the bedrocks. Abandoned mines/pits in the area could aid flooding an d cause a major

landslide or slumps.
 64

6.4.3 Pollution

The major source of pollution in the study area is quarrying activities. The dust and ash released

into the atmosphere from the quarries have an effect on the climate and hydrogeology of the

area. These particles cause a haze during dry season and are suspended in the air. Prolonged

inhalation of the particles could cause lung diseases and stomach upset.
 65

CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECCOMMENDATION

7.1 SUMMARY

Three lithostratigraphic units were identified from the geology of Ozaraukwu based on the

comprehensive field and laboratory studies in the study area. These are The Ozaraukwu

sandstone/shale unit (Amasiri Sandstone of the Eze-Aku Group), Amuro sandstone unit (Afikpo

Sandstone and the Amaizu shale unit (Nkporo Group).

A. The Ozaraukwu Sandstone Unit

This unit consists of dominantly dark grey black shale with Sandstone ridges. The Lithofacies of

Ozaraukwu Sandstone is made up of highly indurated shale that is quarried as aggregate. The

Sandstones occur as elongate ridges and consist of both light grey to whitish on fresh samples

and yellowish to brown color in weathered parts. The outcrops in this unit are exposed at

Amassiri junction to Amasiri/Afikpo road, Abakaliki-Afikpo Roads.

B. The Amuro sandstone

This unit has the Afikpo sandstone as its member. It belongs to the Nkporo group of Campanian

to Maastrichtian. They were encountered in outcrops at Ebonyi Hotel, opposite Ebonyi Hotel,

Ozaraukwu along Amasiri road, mechanic village and mountain of fire. Some of the outcrops

occur as sandstone and mudstone dominated heterolytics, and are usually medium to coarse

grained, cross bedded and bioturbated, whitish to milkfish in colour and weathered in some parts.

C. The Nkporo Shale-Age -Late Campanian

This Unit is represented by dark fissile shale located at the Amangwu area. The presence of

Gastropods (turittela Species) is an indication and confirmation that the sediments were

deposited in a marginal marine environment. The paleoenvironmental inference therefore, is that

 66

the Nkporo Formation was deposited in environments varying from marginal marine to normal

marine. This conforms to the views of Salami (1984),Umeji (2006) and Petters and Edet(1996)

7.2 CONCLUSION

Field and laboratory analysis of various sediments of the Ozara Ukwu and environs indicate that

the sandstones are mostly arkostic to litharkosic, whose provenance is plutonic in a humid

climate condition probably indicating metamorphic Precambrian basement complex of

Southeastern Nigeria in the Oban masif, towards the eastern border of the study area. Therefore,

the map area has provided a diagnostic evidence of the provenance of the various sandstones

within the southeastern basins of the Lower Benue.

7.3 RECOMMENDATION

The study area Afikpo has a lot of potential mineral deposits which can be used for both human

and industrial consumption and as such has undergone severe environmental degradation as a

result of mining and quarrying activities leading to deep gully erosion and possibly landslides,

measures should be taken to reduce the rate of this erosions such as reducing the rate of

deforestation and also assessing the stability of the areas where the gully occurs.
 67

REFERENCES

Banerjee, I. (1980). A subtidal bar model for the Eze-aku sandstones, Nigeria. Sedimentary
Geology, 25(4), 291-309.

Benkhelil,J. (1982). Benue Trough and Benue chain. Geological Magazine, 119(02), 115-168.

Burke, K. and Dewey, J.F. (1973). Plume generated Triple Junction, key indicators in Applying
plate tectonics to old rocks. Journal of Geology , 81: 406-435

Folk, R.L, and Ward, W.C. (1957). Brazos River bar, a study in the significance of grain size
parameters, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 27(1): 3-26.

Friedman, G.M. (1962). N sorting coefficients and log-normality of the grain size distribution of
sandstone. Journal of Geology. 70: 737-53.

Friedman, G.M., 1967. Dynamic processes and statistical parameters compared for size
frequency distribution of beach and river sands. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 37(2):
327-354.

Friedman, G.M., and F.E Sanders (1978). Principles of sedimentology, Wiley, New York. No. of
pages 79

Grant, M.K.(1971). South Atlantic, Benue trough and Gulf of Guinea cretaceous Triple junction
Geol. Soc. Am. Bill. 82: 2295-2296

Igwe, E.O. (2015) Aspects of sedimentlogy stratigraphy and paleocology of the Eze-aku Group
(late cenomanian-Turonian) in Afikpo synclinorium.

Mckee, E,D and Weir, G.W. (1953). Terminology for stratification and cross-stratification in
sedimentary Rocks: Bulletin of the Geological society of Americ. 64: 381-39.

Miola, R.J. and Weiser, D., 1968. Textural parameters; an evaluation. Journal of sedimentary
Petrology, 38: 45-5.

Murat, R.C. (1972). Stratigraphy of palecogeography of the cretaceous and lower Tertiary in
Southern Nigeria in Africa Geology. Dessauvagie, F.J. and Whiteman, A.G. (ed), University
of Ibadan press; Ibadan, Nigeria: 251-266.

Nwachukwu, S.O. (1972). The tectonic Evoluion of the southern portion of the Benue trouh. Nig.
Geol. Mag., 109:41-49.

Olade, M.A. (1975). Evolution of Nigeria Benue Trough (Aulocogen): A Tectonic Model, Geol
Mag 112: 576-583.
 68

Pettijohn, F.J. (1975). “Sedimentary Rocks”. Third edition. Harper and Row, New York.
Petrology. 38: 45-53.

Reyment, R.A (1965). Aspects of geology of Nigeria University press, Ibadan , Nigeria, 22-45:
sedimentary cycles, Southeastern, Nigeria. J. Sediment, Geol.17: 235-345.

Simpson, A. J. (1982). Nigeria coalfields: The geology of parts of Onitsha, Owerri, and Benue
provinces: Geological survey of Nigeria Bulletin 24.

Visher, G.S., (1969). Grainsize distribution and depositional processes. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology. 39: 1074-2016.

Whiteman, A.J. (1982). Nigeria: its prtroleum Geology, Resources and potential Grahaman
Trotman, London. P 394.
 69

APPENDIX I

Interpretation of Grain Size Analysis

Location 2

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.61 0.62 0.62 1.23
-0.5 2.61 2.64 3.25 6.51
0.5 6.02 6.08 9.34 18.68
1.0 18.64 18.84 28.18 56.36
1.5 15.10 15.26 43.44 86.88
2.0 0.13 0.13 43.57 87.14
2.5 3.57 3.61 47.18 94.36
3.0 1.05 1.06 48.24 96.48
3.5 1.23 1.24 49.48 98.97
4.0 0.28 0.28 49.77 99.54
4.5 0.23 0.23 50.00 100.00
49.47 50.00

Location 2

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.92ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.75ϕ
 70

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.02

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

Kg = 1.99ϕ

Median = ϕ50 = 0.95ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
 71

Location 3B

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.72 0.72 0.72 1.45
-0.5 2.50 2.51 3.24 6.47
0.5 9.69 9.74 12.97 25.94
1.0 23.57 23.68 36.66 73.31
1.5 8.17 8.21 44.87 89.73
2.0 0.14 0.14 45.01 90.01
2.5 1.76 1.77 46.77 93.55
3.0 0.59 0.59 47.37 94.73
3.5 1.32 1.33 48.69 97.39
4.0 0.67 0.67 49.37 98.73
4.5 0.63 0.63 50.00 100.00
49.76 50.00

Location 3b
 72

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.77ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.82ϕ

Skewness = +

= +

= 0.08

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

Kg = 2.68

Median = ϕ50 = 0.80ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
73
 74

Location 4

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.85 0.85 0.85 1.70
-0.5 2.41 2.42 3.27 6.54
0.5 4.56 4.57 7.84 15.68
1.0 28.62 28.69 36.53 73.06
1.5 7.16 7.18 43.70 87.41
2.0 0.23 0.23 43.94 87.87
2.5 2.49 2.50 46.43 92.86
3.0 0.90 0.90 47.33 94.67
3.5 1.64 1.64 48.98 97.96
4.0 0.60 0.60 49.58 99.16
4.5 0.42 0.42 50.00 100.00
49.88 50.00

Location 4

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.93ϕ
 75

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.78ϕ

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.14

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

Kg = 3.74ϕ
 76

Median = ϕ50 = 0.90ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
 77

Location 5

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.55 0.55 0.55 1.11
-0.5 2.00 2.02 2.57 5.14
0.5 8.03 8.10 10.67 21.34
1.0 20.80 20.98 31.65 63.30
1.5 11.71 11.81 43.46 86.93
2.0 1.06 1.07 44.53 89.07
2.5 2.71 2.73 47.27 94.53
3.0 0.63 0.64 47.90 95.80
3.5 1.34 1.35 49.25 98.51
4.0 0.40 0.40 49.66 99.31
4.5 0.34 0.34 50.00 100.00
49.57 50.00

Location 5

Graphic mean (GM) = =

 78

GM = 0.86ϕ = 0.86 ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.75ϕ

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.08

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

Kg = 1.92 ϕ

Median = ϕ50 = 0.95ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
79
 80

Location 14

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 1.07 1.07 1.07 2.15
-0.5 2.03 2.04 3.11 6.22
0.5 10.75 10.78 13.89 27.78
1.0 25.41 25.48 39.37 78.74
1.5 6.52 6.54 45.91 91.82
2.0 0.02 0.02 45.93 91.86
2.5 1.29 1.29 47.22 94.44
 81

3.0 0.50 0.50 47.72 95.45

3.5 1.24 1.24 48.97 97.93
4.0 0.50 0.50 49.47 98.94
4.5 0.53 0.53 50.00 100.00
49.86 50.00

Location 14

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.70ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.71ϕ

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.14
 82

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

Kg = 2.16ϕ

Median = ϕ50 = 0.80ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
 83

Location 15

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.85
-0.5 0.84 0.85 1.27 2.54
0.5 6.57 6.62 7.89 15.79
1.0 24.72 24.92 32.81 65.63
1.5 10.66 10.75 43.56 87.12
2.0 0.10 0.10 43.66 87.32
2.5 2.34 2.36 46.02 92.04
3.0 1.19 1.20 47.22 94.44
3.5 2.13 2.15 49.36 98.73
4.0 0.37 0.37 49.74 99.48
 84

4.5 0.26 0.26 50.00 100.00

49.60 50.00

Location 15

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.95ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.2125 + 0.4773 = 0.689 ≈ 0.69ϕ

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.27

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

 85

Kg = 2.87

Median = ϕ50 = 0.90ϕ

Mode = 1.0
 86

Location 16

Grain Weight Corrected Cummulative %

Size (Ø) Retained (g) Weight (g) Weight Cummulative
Retained (g) Weight
Retained (%)
-1.0 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.15
-0.5 0.74 0.75 0.82 1.64
0.5 6.52 6.54 7.36 14.72
1.0 24.57 24.65 32.01 64.01
1.5 12.30 12.34 44.35 88.69
2.0 0.06 0.06 44.41 88.82
2.5 2.37 2.38 46.79 93.58
3.0 0.94 0.95 47.73 95.47
 87

3.5 1.34 1.35 49.08 98.16

4.0 0.55 0.55 49.64 99.27
4.5 0.36 0.36 50.00 100.00
49.85 50.00

Location 16

Graphic mean (GM) = =

GM = 0.94ϕ

Sorting () = +

= +

Sorting = 0.65ϕ

Skewness = +

Sk = +

Sk = 0.21

Graphic kurtosis (kg) = =

 88

Kg = 1.42ϕ

Median = ϕ50 = 0.92ϕ

Mode = 1.0ϕ
89
90