Grammar point 1: Dummy subjects.

English sentences must have a subject (except for imperative sentences). So, if we don’t have
any other subject, we can use ‘there’ or ‘it’.

There
A pronoun that doesn’t really have a meaning, but is used as the subject of a sentence when
otherwise the sentence wouldn’t have a clear subject.

● With a noun or a noun phrase and the verb ‘be’, where or when something is:

There’s a book on the table

There’s a coffee shop next to the station.

● Something existing or happening → “Existe, Hay” usually abstract or

uncountable nouns.

There’s a small problem.

There was a nasty fight.

● With numbers or amounts

There was plenty of food.
There were a hundred people at the meeting.

● With an expression of quantity followed by to + infinitive

There was lots to see.

There was plenty to eat.

● With any tense of ‘be’, including with modal verbs + be.

There might be cake at the party.

There wouldn’t have been a problem if you had called me.

● With question tags.

There isn’t a cat in the garden, is there?

● With some other verbs and expressions that are followed by ‘be’ and a noun phrase.
There seems to be a problem.
There happens to be a red car outside.
There tends to be a lot of rain in October.

❌ Never use with others: There exist/it exists

 It → “Es...”, countable nouns.
‘It’ tends to be followed by an adjective rather than a noun phrase.

● with ‘be’ + adj + to + infinitive. OR ING to express an opinion

It’s nice to be here.
It’s nice being here.

● Times/dates and days

It’s two o’clock.
It’s your birthday

● For weather and similar conditions.

It’s raining.
It’s a lovely day.

● For distances
It’s three miles to Lucy’s house.

● With some other expressions.

It takes two hours to get to London.
It looks as if we are going to be late.
It seems as though we might need some more money.
It causes me pain/ It pains me

❌ Never use with others: There exist/it exists

● With passive reporting verbs.

It is said that … It is believed that … It is understood that…

❌ but not other verbs: It is needed, it is known

Grammar point 1.2: Missing Subjects
❌ Is difficult to say this in English.
✅ It’s difficult to say this in English.

❌ So it is true that can be really useful for them.

✅ So it is true that it can be really useful for them.

❌ She explained why is important to discuss this in a language class.

✅ She explained why it is important to discuss this in a language class.
Grammar point 1.3: Double Subjects → Rephrase is the solution
❌ It has been demonstrated the importance that teachers have in the learning process.
✅The importance that teachers have in the learning process has been
demonstrated.

❌ It exists a lack of material adequate for that age group.

✅ a lack of adequate material exists for that age group.
✅ a lack of adequate material for that age group exists.

❌It is used to show an action that started to happen at some point but it continues to happen
in the present
✅ It is used to show an action that started to happen at some point but continues to happen…

❌The thing that it’s happening with the coronavirus.

✅ The thing that is happening with the coronavirus.

❌ It will be adapted a unit in order to...

✅ a unit will be adapted in order to...
Grammar point 2: Definite and zero article

Articles can have:

● A generic Reference → Pass me a pencil (any)

● Specific Reference → Pass me the pencil.

You can say “the people” or “the students” when you know which ones/who.

The students were very interested in the project.

The people in my town are so cruel.
I just loved the irony that you used to stop him.

The Specific (countable nouns)

-To say there is only one of a thing.
Shes is the new head of the language department.
-Refer back to the same thing already mentioned.
Those are the shoes I wanted to buy
-Speak about something already known (people or objects)
We will do the homework at your place.

Generic (countable nouns)

-The + singular: Generalize about a class of things or species
Ex: The elephant is still hunted by its tuks

a/an Generic (countable nouns)

-A/AN + singular noun
Ex: A video game can be expensive.
I’m looking for a new job.
Ø Generic (countable noun)
-Zero article + Plural noun
Children like to copy their friends.
Video Games can be expensive.
Tigers are nearing extinction.

Generic (uncountable noun / Abstract nouns)

-Zero article + uncountable noun
Love is more important than money
Tolerance is an important virtue

Generic (Object of a sentence)

-Subj + Verb + Zero article

● Plural (countable)
 Children like toys
● Singular (uncountable)
No one has enough time

Mountains, Meals, Languages, Activities, games, jobs - Ø

Rivers, hotel names, ocean - “the”

Prison, school, hospital (ingresado) - Ø

Prison, school, hospital (visiting) - Ø

Grammar point 3: Embedded or Indirect Questions--word order

Indirect question: It is a question that contains an embedded question. It is the “full”

sentence.
Embedded question: An ‘Embedded question’ is a question within a statement or as part of
another question.

Polite statement/question + embedded question.

Ex: Could you tell me where the bus stop is?

*they act as a noun clause

● 2 types:
1. Part of another question.

When does the next train arrive? (Direct question)

Do you know when the next train arrives?

When does the restaurant close? (Direct question)

Could you tell me when the restaurant closes?

You do not keep auxiliary “do” in indirect questions.

You use a question mark (?) at the end.

2. Question within a statement. →

Where does she work? (Direct question)

I don’t know where she works. (obj)
Where she works is very far. (subj)

You do not use a question mark.

Other notes:
✅ Keep Wh- words, if it is non, use if or whether (yes/no questions)
✅ Normal word order
Careful with Reported questions
Students were asked what is their opinion on motivation.
Students were asked what their opinion on motivation was. (regression)
Grammar point 4: Collocations, strong & weak
A combination of 2+ words that are likely to occur together to express a certain idea.
[Adj + noun] heavy traffic, awkward situation, strong coffee, heavy rain.
[Verb + noun] do the dishes, ride a bike, give birth, raise children, take a walk, spend time.

How strong they are depends on how socially established they are. If people would
absolutely use that combination of words and no other, then it is a strong
combination. If the word used is frequently used but, other alternatives are also
acceptable in the language intuition of native speakers, then it is a weak collocation.

Ex: Turn on the light vs loving/caring/supportive family

Phrasal verbs are a kind of very strong collocation, where the meaning of the
individual components can almost disappear in the combination with the other word
ex: hang out

Idioms or fixed idiomatic expressions like ‘to have money problems’ or ‘again and
again’, are also a somewhat strongish collocation. They can be recognized as fixed
or set when trying to figure out what the natural equivalent would be in another
language. Again and again / una y otra vez

Poner la mesa = set the table (not put)

Lavar los platos = do the dishes
Estar mal de plata = have money problems
Una y otra vez – again and again
No tener caso = to be pointless
Dedicarse a = to be up to sthg
Estar al tanto = to know about
Take for granted = dar por hecho
Grammar point 5: Verb Patterns--infinitive & gerund

When we write verbs can use 2 forms:

1. The gerund (-ing form)

-To describe an actual, vivid, or fulfilled actual action.
We always enjoy seeing good movies

-As the subject of a sentence

Acting in plays is very enjoyable

-After a preposition
He is really good at telling stories

2. The infinitive (to + verb)

-To talk about hopes, wish, intentions, or decisions.
We want to visit the new art gallery.
Everybody deserves to have a second chance.
You never offer to do my homework for me.

- After adjectives
“That music is cheerful to listen to”

to + ing
Prepositional phrase + to (acting as a prep) + ing
I look forward to meeting you
You will get used to living here
I resorted/confessed to stealing
She objects to lying
I’m opposed to living in Chile

work out/ working out

Parellisim
Lauren is applying for a new job, which means quitting her current one.

Bare infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by both patterns, with a different meaning:

Remember + ing
“You remember something that has happened in the past, you have a memory of it”
I remember going to the beach when I was a child.

Remember + to + inf
“You think of something that you need to do in the present”

Forget + gerund
You forget about a memory, something that you have done.

Forget + to + inf
It’s when you want to do something, but you forget about it.

Try + gerund
You do something as an experiment. It’s not difficult, but you want to see if by doing it you
get the result that you want.

Try + to + inf
It requires effort, it is difficult. You might not succeed in doing it (Future or present). You
made an effort but did not succeed (past).
She tried to catch the bus, but she couldn’t run fast enough.

Stop + gerund
To stop forever or at the moment the verb in ing form. To quit an action.
I wish I would stop procrastinating, it is a waste of time.

Stop + to + inf
To pause or interrupt one action to do another.
I studied all afternoon, I didn’t even stop to eat dinner.

Regret + gerund
You are sorry about something you did in the past, you wish you hadn’t done it.

Regret + to + inf
When we are giving someone bad news in a formal way. “Say” or “tell” or “inform”

Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow like
attempt love
begin neglect
bother omit
cease permit
continue Start
deserve means
I am committed to work/working very hard this semester.

*It focusses on 2 things very hard and working

Traditionally one commits to a person or thing. That is, one commits to a noun.
followed by "to" + noun, for example:
A large amount of money has been committed to the project.

Acts as a preposition
If instead of a noun you have a verb after "to," that verb has to be a gerund:

- They have committed to supporting the project.