Dead oceans: closed oceans→ form mountain belts Orogenesis: process of electric cars, smartphones, laptops, etc.

laptops, etc. Stratigraphy: involves using

mountain belt formation Obduction: Ocean crust getting thrust up onto land “layers” to reconstruct a sequence of events Metamorphic Rocks:
Crustal shortening: when land mass comes together and crumples together 3 Metamorphic rocks: formed through alteration of pre-existing rocks
Types of Convergent Boundaries: •Ocean-ocean: forms volcanic island arcs without melting Three types of metamorphosism: Contact:when rocks are
•Ocean-continental crust: results in magmatic arcs (like the Andes)
•Continent-continent: closure between continents, leads to formation of mountain
heated by nearby magma intrusions, Regional: over large areas>mountain
ranges Dying Oceans -Oceans Closing: • Ocean close by subduction (“sinking building, Dynamic (or hydrothermal) Gneiss: high-grade metamorphic
beneath” another into the mantle) until continents come together at suture (aka rock deep within the crust, originates from pre-existing rocks Migmatite:
stitched together at a fault zone), may bring slivers of ocean crust onto land when gneiss is under too much pressure and heat and starts to melt
(ophiolites)- Orogenesis happens, Mountain range = orogen, Delamination: Geologic Time: Relative age: age relative to something else Absolute
Subducting slab breaks off, sinks into the mantle Thrust faults: pushed up + over age: age relative to the earth Dating The Past • Strata accumulate in
something else, shallow/gentle slope → helps form mountain ranges (canadian basins: They fill a basin with conformable succession of strata as long as
rockies) Foreland basin: Forms from the downward drag of heavy crust. Swiss the surface stays below the bare level of erosion, If there’s a break in
Alps: • Layers of ocean sediment •Once a mountain forms too high, there is sedimentation, disconformities can happen- Disconformities mark pauses
shaving off the top caused by erosion (makes the iconic pointy tops of the Swiss
Alps), Nappes: folded rock, White part in middle was a piece of African plate that
in sedimentation within an otherwise conformable succession
broke up and wedged up in the Alps (African prong) Volcanos & Earthquakes In (continuous) of strata • Basins accommodate strata when they deepen with
Italy • African plate is subducting near Italty which is why it has so many subsidence (caving in) of crust Law of Superposition: Oldest rocks on
earthquakes Vulcano: the “original” volcano, “Vulcan” = roman god of fire • bottom, strata young on top, Aka the older the rock is, the deeper it is •
Stromboli: lighthouse of the Mediterranean •Stromboli explosion: Milding Disconformities can be identified with the use of ‘index fossils’ and
fountaining of lava (little bit of magma going up, little bit of smoke- Erupts correlative layers like ash to correlate across long distances and gaps •
constantly • Plinian Eruption: Large, explosive, ashy eruption, has lots of Biostratigraphy is hard because it can only be used if you have the right
pyroclastic flow Subduction of Mediterranian Sea as Anatolian Plate rocks and conditions where you can identify these former animals Law of
“Escaping” Westwards • Arabian plate going north → Anatolian plate going cross-cutting relations: Something that cuts across some other feature is
west (its being pushed by Arabian plate) → Anatolian plate pushing parts of
Mediterranean Sea → Leads to subduction in the sea - Arabian plate is making
younger, Aka cross-cutting can only come after the strata), Eg. dike cuts
mountains by indenting into Eurasia (lifting Zargos and Caucasus mountains) • across all older units Law of intrusions: same thing as law of
Gneiss: metamorphic rock How it’s formed: changing of continental crust cross-cutting • Both law of cross-cutting relations and law of intrusions
thickening (sedimentary → metamorphic) Sediment •Terrain generates sediment can establish chronology in rocks Law of original horizontally: strata are
that absorbs CO2, affecting climate. Raising mountains can affect atmospheric originally deposited flat/horizontally. Changes in the flatness are due to
circulation (eg. monsoon), Rising of Himalayas kickstarted glaciation of later changes (eg. folding or faulting) • Unconformities mark episodes of
Antarctica, If you see horizontal “layers” on mountains, they’re probably made of uplift, erosion, and non-deposition Law of lateral continuity: Strata
sedimentary rock Escape Tectonics • Happens along faults called transport faults originally continued laterally until the edges of their basin If strate are
(due to tectonic pressures) Earth Materials: Rocks vs Minerals: • Rock: interrupted laterally, then some event has caused that to happen (eg.
Naturally forming, Not always inorganic, Composed of 1+ minerals, Made up of
minerals (vs.) Minerals: Naturally occurring, Inorganic, Crystalline solid, Specific
erosion, faulting, intrusion) • Aka, strata should fill the basin. If it doesn’t,
chemical composition, Building block of rocks • Rockhounding: people who look something geological happened. Structural Geology • The shape of strata
for interesting rocks How Do We Identify Minerals? 1) Colour: More noticeable shows if the rocks are folded, faulted, or orientated in any way Folds:
but least accurate 2)Streak: the color of mineral in powder form (more reliable) • ductile “wrinkling” of rock layers Faults:
Crystallography: the study of crystal shapes Mineral cleavage: the shape of brittle breaks across where rocks slide
mineral when broken Lusture: The way light is reflected (metallic, glossy) Folded Rocks • 2 types: Anticline and
Hardness: Scratchability Silicate minerals contain silicon and oxygen which syncline , Anticline is up and down folding,
accounts for 90% of all minerals, SiO2 & other elements. Non-silicate minerals- syncline is bowl-shaped *To remember
Most common types: • Carbonates:Calcite (CaCO3)-Dolomite - Ca Mg(CO3)2 • easier, the anticline form is like an “A” shape
Evaporites • Halite (NaCl), Metallic minerals called ‘ores’ (aka concentration of
minerals): • Magnetite, hematite (iron) • Galena (lead) • Sphalerite (zinc) Mines:
James Hutton: Father of Modern Geology •
Placer deposits: concentrated at the surface area • Metals concentrated in old rocks Recognized uniformities in layers of rock
which have experienced hydrothermal alteration: the change rocks undergo due to and igneous origin of granite • Proposed
hot water deep underground, forming new minerals concept of uniformitarianism • Came into
The Rock Cycle conflict with Abram Werner and
Usually, magma more silica-rich than ‘diluvialism’ and ‘catastrophism’
the melting rock - Usually, mafic Geophysicists: •William Thomson, Lord
minerals crystallize at higher Kelvin (1824-1907), Method: cooling rate of molten Earth through
temperatures than felsic minerals conduction and radiation, Said 24-40 million years • John Joly
Pegmatites: extreme magma (1857-1933), Method: rate of delivery of salt to the ocean, Said 90-100
differentiation that form very large million years - Total salts in ocean / rate of addition = age Radiometric
crystals b/c of cooling rates due to being Dating: • Arthur Holmes (1860-1965), Pioneer of ‘absolute’ dating
enriched in water • Sedimentary rocks (radiometric dating) using isotopes The Hadean The very beginning → A
are the result of the breakdown of “magma ocean” undergoing bombardment by meteorites (‘segregation of
surface rocks - Weathering: breaking elements by weights’ → as the Earth cooled down, the heavy/dense
down rocks through weather and other natural sources, Transportation: material would go to the core & light material like silicate would surface,
movement of rocks (water, wind..), Deposition: rocks like sediment are these heavy materials brought the condensation of the ocean).
added to land mass, Lithification: turning loose sediment into solid rock The Snowman Analogy for Continental Growth Continents grow by
through compaction and cementation • Lots of paleo-information is stored collecting terrane overtime (largest snowball), sometimes those cratons
in sedimentary rocks Mechanical Breakdown of Rock - collide to form a supercontinent (snowballs stacked on top of eachother),
Clasts/fragments: mechanical breakdown of rocks Rounded clasts: cover rocks are sediments that accumulate over the continents (snowball
smoothened from back and forth of waves, Modes of transportation that decor) Palezoic cover rocks drape over the carton. Terrane accretion:
leaves behind sedimentary structures: 1)Environment (eg. river) 2) incremental growth of continents Shield: A landform Initial Formation
Bedford 3) Deposit (eg. cross-bedded sandstone) Chemical Weathering: Of Continental Crust: rock adds overtime after the initial formation of
Evaporites: water evaporates>dissolved minerals become increasingly the supercontinental crust, Stage 0: Original Cratons > 2.5 Ga (Cratons -
concentrated>precipitate out of solution>form solid crystals Rock salt - large fairly coherent areas of continental crust that have long-term
(the mineral halite) rock composed of mainly salt , Lithium → batteries in stability) Stage 1/2: Arctica, Nena & The Trans Hudson Orogen, Small
pieces of content come together to form a first supercontinent (called rocks that aren’t where they should be) Till: unsorted material deposited
Arctica) ~ 2 billion years ago. Basically a big mountain belt using 2 directly by glacial ice Drumlin: long or oval hill of material left by a
continents (superior craton collided w/ the Churchill craton), and this glacier Also tells us the speed of ice flow Moraines: distinct ridges or
happened again 1.8 billion yrs ago when another supercontinent form mounds of debris that are laid down directly by a glacier or pushed up by
(Arctica breaks up in between 2 billion and comes back 1.8 billion yrs it. Glaciolacustrine deposits: Sediments deposited into lakes that have
ago), tons of obduction. Cratonization: Accretionary (growth) process that come from glaciers Glacioisostatic depression: When heavy glaciers melt,
builds continents Stage 3: Rodinia, came from South & North America they release pressure on the Earth's crust, causing it to rise back up (this
collision. - Structure of the Grenville Orogen: Laurentia (aka North can lead to the land sinking or depressions forming) Glacioisostatic
America) collides with Amazonia (aka South America) and Amazonia rebound: when glaciers accumulate, they push down on the crust causing
gets thrusts up over Laurentia Grenville Orogeny: Collision of Laurentia it to sink like memory foam, Antropocene era → disapproved to be an
with South American (from the supercontinent Rodinia) Himalayan era bc there are academic debates on if enough time has passed that we
Orogeny: a modern analog for the Grenville Orogeny (basically, Grenville can use it. The Epoch of Man: We’re living on built landscape → This
is the eroded version of the Himalayan mountains we know today) Index effect changes how the land migrates (natural land is soft and absorbing,
minerals: metamorphic minerals that can act as paleothermometers now it hits concrete and we have to deal with runoff), Sediment is now
(basically, we can use those metamorphic rocks to provide an estimate of moving downstream in different ways because of this runoff. Total
what the temperature was like when those natural minerals formed) anthropogenic (human-activity) sediment input into oceans is ~17x
Garnet: index minerals that forms at depths over 25km natural levels. Anthropocene: A Chronostratigraphic Term?: People
Mylonite: the product of intense shear Migmatite: partial melting of arguing if we’re in a new “era” with plastic and changes of climate change
gneiss Central Metasedimentary Belt Boundary Zone (CMBBZ): a really because of human activity. The original Anthropocene started in the 1700s
old big fault that still makes earthquakes Stromatolites: layers of bacteria with the Industrial Revolution and the Steam Engine
(from organisms 3 billion years ago) • The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ → • GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point): International agreed point
Rapid diversification, Hard-bodied animals, First appearance of organismsthat defines the start of a stage on a geologic time scale. A GOOD GSSP
we evolved from, Burgess Shale has a lot of organisms there) is; Defined in one place, is globally recognizable, well dated, preserved
and accessible Megacities: Population in a city with 10 million+
Urban shadow: broader region affected by urban resource usage
A lot of disasters are magnified in a megacity because there’s so many
people in such a small area. Lloyd’s City Risk Index: analyzes how
different threats (natural and man-made) could affect the economies of
301 major cities worldwide The Greenbelt: To preserve areas, we should
keep relatively untouched land. Two phases of environmental shock
(where the land has been drastically changed): deforestation, and then
later urbanization. Urbanization: Flashy streamflow: streams rise and fall
quickly Baseflow: groundwater. Because we’re increasing the hardness of
land, our city isn’t prepared to deal with flash floods. The landscape that
we designed 70 years ago is not suitable for today (a design flaw)
Greenfields: areas of uncontaminated land (land suitable for agriculture)
Brownfields: Contaminated places (eg. land on factory, cities). Land is not
suitable for agriculture. Frenchman’s Bay Problem: Excess of nutrients
causes algal bloom and eutrophication & they tried to wash it using
outside lakes. Eutrophication: using up of oxygen due to increase algal
blooms Creek Problem: ppl are destroying ecosystems/natural creeks and
replacing it with manmade ones → not good for mitigating sedimentation,
The 4 Layer Model 4th layer: ‘Built landscape and historic fill materials, nutrients and flow. Also, Salt we use on roads get washed away into lakes
3rd layer: Glacial sediments (< 2 million years ago) 2nd layer: (7000 tons) and most of it is useless because it immediately gets washed
Phanerozoic/Palezoic cover rocks (600 - 2 million years ago), 1st layer: away by rain and other things. Geotextiles: fabric-like materials used in
Precambrian basement (> 1000 million years ago) construction and landscaping to improve soil stability, drainage, filtration,
Part 4: Formation of Pangea :Appalachian Orogeny 400-300 Million and erosion control. Reusing/Remediating Brownfields: 3 Phases 1)
Years Ago, Maritime Canada and Eastern USA (Appalachian Belt) is Fire Maps: ​help identify where chemicals are to avoid accidentally
made up of terranes. Terranes: Far-travelled displaced crust rereleasing them from the ground. 2) Geophysical investigation of
Logan’s line: boundary between two geological provinces contaminated sites (fieldwork) (most expensive stage): Further analyzing
Maritime Canada Formation: (Volcanic arcs get plastered onto the side of area of chemicals on the ground 3) Cost-benefit analysis: The best way to
Laurentia, Microcontent Avalonia squishes volcano arc, Gondwana deal with contaminants to make the most out of used land, different
squishes it all together) Part 5: Pangea Breaks Up: Pangea breaks up with contaminated areas could alter what could be built on the land. More
North America and the west side becomes an Active Plate Margin, Also terms: Recharge area: where water is absorbed into the ground Confined
breaks up with African plate→Atlantic Ocean opens , If you go to Nova aquifers & unconfined aquifers: permeable layers in which water can filter
Scotia to Five Islands, you can see where new seafloor has tried to come through like sponge (confined aquifers are generally more protected from
up and flow over rocks, British Columbia and Alaska along with others surface contamination) Aquitards: sediment is impermeable and water
were added to North America as North America gets pushed to the west cannot move through very quickly Water Table: upper surface of
Ice Ages of the Last 2.5 Million Years: Ice covers 35-40% of Northern groundwater Aquifer: Underground layer of rock or sediment that holds
Hemisphere perhaps 50 times in last 2.5 million years. The Laurentide Ice groundwater Leachate Plume: Contaminated liquid that spreads
Sheet: Formed repeatedly during the last 2.5 million years, Last glaciation underground from a landfill or waste site (it can contaminate
was between 70 and 10,000 years ago, We’re living in the interglacial groundwater) Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Another type of
period (period in between ice ages) called the Holocene, Trend that ice contamination that happens near mines Tailing: crushed up bits of
formation gets bigger every ice age, Fjord: a long, deep, narrow body of rocks/waste (eg. sulphide) + water that can contaminate ground water/bad
water that reaches far inland Glacial Erratic Boulder: Ice is good at chemical gas Tailing ponds: Man-made reservoirs that prevent tailings
moving debris Glacial erratic boulder: “Exotic” rocks because the materialfrom getting into groundwater
is nowhere near the composition as the local rocks around them (basically, Talik: unfrozen water