Module 4 Magnetic methods

Unit1: Theory, concept and instruments

Unit 2: Magnetic Survey
Unit 3 Magnetic Data Processing

Unit 4: Qualitative Interpretation of Magnetic data

Unit 5: Quantitative interpretation of magnetic data

Magnetic Methods

A. Theory and Concept

Magnetic methods in geophysics involve measuring variations in the Earth's magnetic field to
infer the distribution and properties of magnetized rocks. These variations can indicate the
presence of mineral deposits, geological structures, and archaeological features. The core
concepts include:

1. Magnetic Fields and Magnetism:

o Earth's Magnetic Field: The Earth's magnetic field resembles that of a dipole,
with a north and south magnetic pole. This field is generated by the movement of
molten iron within the Earth's outer core.
o Magnetization: Rocks can acquire magnetization through various processes:
 Induced Magnetization: Proportional to the Earth's magnetic field and
the magnetic susceptibility of the rock.
 Remanent Magnetization: A permanent magnetization acquired by rocks
through geological processes.
2. Magnetic Anomalies:
o Positive Anomalies: Indicate higher magnetic susceptibility than the surrounding
area, often due to ferromagnetic minerals.
o Negative Anomalies: Indicate lower magnetic susceptibility.
3. Susceptibility and Permeability:
o Magnetic Susceptibility: A measure of how much a material will become
magnetized in an external magnetic field.
o Magnetic Permeability: The ability of a material to support the formation of a
magnetic field within itself.
4. Data Interpretation:
o Total Field Anomalies: The difference between the observed magnetic field and
the expected Earth's field.
o Reduction to the Pole: A technique to transform magnetic data as if observed at
the magnetic poles, simplifying interpretation.
o Inversion and Modeling: Techniques used to convert magnetic data into a
subsurface model of magnetic properties.
Instruments

Several instruments are used in magnetic surveys, each with specific applications and precision
levels:

1. Magnetometers:
o Proton Precession Magnetometer: Measures the total magnetic field by
detecting the frequency of precession of protons in a magnetic field. It is highly
sensitive and widely used.
o Fluxgate Magnetometer: Measures the vector components of the magnetic field.
It is suitable for both ground and airborne surveys.
o Optically Pumped Magnetometer: Uses the principles of optical pumping to
measure magnetic fields with high sensitivity and precision.
2. Gradiometers:
o Magnetic Gradiometers: Measure the gradient of the magnetic field rather than
the total field. This can enhance the resolution of near-surface anomalies and
reduce the influence of diurnal variations and long-wavelength anomalies.
3. Survey Platforms:
o Ground Surveys: Using handheld or backpack-mounted magnetometers for
detailed, small-scale surveys.
o Airborne Surveys: Employing magnetometers mounted on aircraft for large-
scale, rapid data collection over vast areas.
o Marine Surveys: Using magnetometers towed behind ships for underwater
magnetic surveys.

Applications

Magnetic methods are utilized across various fields:

1. Mineral Exploration: Locating ore bodies, particularly those containing iron, nickel, and
cobalt.
2. Oil and Gas Exploration: Mapping sedimentary basins and identifying faults and
fractures.
3. Archaeology: Detecting buried structures and artifacts.
4. Environmental Studies: Mapping contamination plumes and locating buried waste.
5. Geological Mapping: Understanding regional geological structures, such as faults, folds,
and volcanic features.

Summary

Magnetic methods in geophysics provide essential data for interpreting subsurface structures and
composition. By measuring variations in the Earth's magnetic field with advanced instruments,
geophysicists can infer the presence of mineral deposits, geological formations, and even
archaeological sites. This non-invasive technique is a cornerstone of exploration and
environmental studies, offering insights into the Earth's hidden features.
 B. Magnetic Survey

A magnetic survey is a geophysical method used to measure variations in the Earth's magnetic
field. These surveys help detect and map subsurface geological structures, mineral resources, and
archaeological features.

Types of Magnetic Surveys

1. Ground Surveys:
o Handheld Magnetometers: Used for detailed, localized surveys. Instruments are
carried by surveyors who walk along predetermined lines, collecting data at
regular intervals.
o Backpack Magnetometers: Provide mobility and ease of use for ground surveys
in rugged terrain.
o Gradiometers: Measure the magnetic gradient, enhancing resolution of near-
surface anomalies.
2. Airborne Surveys:
o Fixed-Wing Aircraft: Used for large-scale surveys over extensive areas.
Magnetometers are mounted in wing-tips or tail booms.
o Helicopters: Offer greater maneuverability and can fly at lower altitudes,
providing higher resolution data. Magnetometers are often towed in a bird
(aerodynamic housing).
3. Marine Surveys:
o Towed Magnetometers: Deployed behind ships to measure the magnetic field
over large areas of the ocean floor. Used extensively in offshore exploration.
4. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs):
o Drones equipped with magnetometers are increasingly used for magnetic surveys.
They offer cost-effective, high-resolution data collection, especially in
inaccessible or hazardous areas.

Survey Planning

1. Objective Definition:
o Clearly define the purpose of the survey, whether for mineral exploration,
geological mapping, or archaeological investigation.
2. Area Selection:
o Choose the survey area based on geological information, historical data, and
specific targets.
3. Line Spacing and Orientation:
o Design the survey grid with appropriate line spacing and orientation to ensure
adequate coverage and resolution. Denser grids provide higher resolution but
increase time and cost.
4. Elevation and Terrain Considerations:
o Adjust survey parameters based on terrain. For example, in airborne surveys,
maintain a consistent flying altitude above the ground to avoid data distortion.
Data Acquisition

1. Instrument Calibration:
o Calibrate magnetometers before the survey to ensure accuracy. This involves
setting the instrument to known magnetic field values and adjusting accordingly.
2. Data Collection:
o Collect data along pre-defined survey lines. Ground surveys involve walking or
driving along these lines, while airborne and marine surveys follow planned flight
paths or sea routes.
3. Diurnal Corrections:
o Account for diurnal variations in the Earth's magnetic field by setting up a base
station magnetometer. This station records variations over time, which are then
used to correct survey data.

Data Processing

1. Filtering and Smoothing:

o Apply filters to remove noise and smooth the data, enhancing the visibility of
anomalies.
2. Reduction to the Pole (RTP):
o Transform the magnetic data as if it were observed at the magnetic poles. This
simplifies interpretation by centering anomalies over their sources.
3. Gridding and Contouring:
o Convert discrete data points into a continuous grid and generate contour maps.
These maps visualize the magnetic field variations across the survey area.
4. Anomaly Identification:
o Identify and characterize magnetic anomalies. Positive anomalies indicate higher
magnetic susceptibility, while negative anomalies suggest lower susceptibility.

Interpretation and Modeling

1. Qualitative Interpretation:
o Visual analysis of magnetic maps to identify geological features such as faults,
folds, and mineral deposits.
2. Quantitative Interpretation:
o Use mathematical models to estimate the size, shape, and depth of the sources
causing magnetic anomalies. This often involves inversion techniques to convert
surface measurements into subsurface models.
3. Integration with Other Data:
o Combine magnetic survey results with geological, geochemical, and other
geophysical data to enhance interpretation and provide a comprehensive
understanding of the subsurface.

Applications

1. Mineral Exploration:
 o Detect and map ore bodies, particularly those containing ferromagnetic minerals
like iron, nickel, and cobalt.
2. Oil and Gas Exploration:
o Identify structural features such as faults and anticlines that can trap
hydrocarbons.
3. Geological Mapping:
o Define lithological boundaries, map faults, and understand regional geological
structures.
4. Archaeology:
o Locate buried structures, artifacts, and settlements without excavation.
5. Environmental Studies:
o Map contamination plumes, locate buried waste, and assess pollution levels.

Summary

Magnetic surveys are a powerful tool in geophysics, providing critical data for exploring mineral
resources, mapping geological structures, and uncovering archaeological sites. By measuring
variations in the Earth's magnetic field with precision instruments, these surveys offer a non-
invasive means to investigate the subsurface and inform various scientific and industrial
applications.

C. Magnetic Data Processing

Magnetic data processing is a crucial step in transforming raw magnetic field measurements into
interpretable information. This process involves several stages, from initial data correction to
advanced modeling techniques. Here's a detailed overview:

Steps in Magnetic Data Processing

1. Data Preprocessing:
o Diurnal Correction:
 Correct for daily variations in the Earth's magnetic field using data from a
base station magnetometer. Subtract these variations from the survey data
to remove temporal magnetic field changes.
o Heading Correction:
 Adjust for any directional biases in airborne or marine surveys caused by
the orientation of the magnetometer relative to the Earth's magnetic field.
2. Noise Filtering:
o Despiking:
 Remove spikes or outliers in the data caused by sudden, non-geological
magnetic field variations, often from man-made sources or
instrumentation glitches.
o Low-pass Filtering:
 Apply a low-pass filter to smooth the data and remove high-frequency
noise, enhancing the visibility of broader geological anomalies.
o Decimation:
  Reduce data density by selecting a subset of data points to decrease
computational load without significant loss of information.
3. Leveling and Merging:
o Tie-line Levelling:
 Use crossing lines (tie lines) to correct for discrepancies between survey
lines. Adjust the data to ensure consistency across the survey grid.
o Microlevelling:
 Apply microlevelling techniques to remove subtle line-to-line
discrepancies, resulting in a smoother and more continuous data set.
4. Reduction to the Pole (RTP):
o Transform the Magnetic Data:
 Convert the data as if it were collected at the magnetic poles, simplifying
anomaly interpretation. This process centers anomalies over their sources,
making geological features more apparent.
5. Regional-Residual Separation:
o Trend Surface Analysis:
 Separate regional magnetic field trends from local anomalies using
polynomial fitting or other methods. This step isolates the anomalies of
interest by removing the broad, regional magnetic field variations.
o Filter-Based Techniques:
 Use filters like upward continuation or band-pass filters to isolate residual
anomalies from regional trends.
6. Gridding and Interpolation:
o Grid Creation:
 Convert discrete magnetic data points into a continuous grid using
interpolation methods such as kriging, minimum curvature, or inverse
distance weighting.
o Contour Mapping:
 Generate contour maps from gridded data to visualize magnetic field
variations across the survey area. Contours help in identifying and
delineating anomalies.
7. Advanced Data Enhancement:
o Vertical and Horizontal Derivatives:
 Calculate the first and second derivatives of the magnetic field to enhance
the edges of anomalies and provide additional structural information.
o Analytic Signal:
 Compute the analytic signal to identify the location of magnetic bodies
regardless of their magnetization direction.
o Tilt Derivative:
 Use tilt derivatives to highlight subtle magnetic anomalies and provide
better visualization of shallow features.
8. Inversion and Modeling:
o Forward Modeling:
 Create synthetic models of the subsurface to match observed magnetic
data. Adjust model parameters to fit the data, helping infer the geometry
and depth of magnetic sources.
 o Inversion Techniques:
 Apply inversion algorithms to convert magnetic data directly into a 3D
model of subsurface magnetic susceptibility. Inversion provides a
quantitative interpretation of the magnetic data.
9. Integration with Other Data:
o Geological and Geophysical Integration:
 Combine magnetic data with other geophysical datasets (e.g., gravity,
seismic) and geological information to enhance interpretation and build
comprehensive subsurface models.
o GIS Integration:
 Integrate magnetic survey data into Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) for spatial analysis and visualization.

Summary

Magnetic data processing is a multi-stage procedure that refines raw magnetic field
measurements into useful geological information. From initial corrections for diurnal variations
to advanced modeling and integration with other data types, each step enhances the accuracy and
interpretability of the data. This rigorous processing ensures that magnetic surveys provide
reliable insights into subsurface geological structures, mineral deposits, and other features of
interest.

D. Qualitative Interpretation of Magnetic data Qualitative Interpretation of

Magnetic Data

Qualitative interpretation of magnetic data involves visually analyzing magnetic anomalies to

infer geological structures and features. This type of interpretation relies on the experience and
intuition of geophysicists and geologists to identify patterns and relate them to subsurface
geology.

Key Concepts and Techniques

1. Magnetic Anomalies:
o Positive Anomalies: Areas where the magnetic field strength is higher than the
regional background. Typically indicate the presence of ferromagnetic minerals
like magnetite.
o Negative Anomalies: Areas where the magnetic field strength is lower than the
regional background. Often associated with rocks that have lower magnetic
susceptibility or destructive interference patterns.
2. Magnetic Maps and Profiles:
o Total Field Magnetic Map: Displays the measured magnetic field values over
the survey area. Used to identify broad anomalies and regional trends.
o Residual Magnetic Map: Shows the magnetic field after removing the regional
trend. Enhances local anomalies for detailed analysis.
 o Magnetic Profiles: Cross-sectional plots of magnetic field measurements along
survey lines. Useful for understanding the vertical extent and geometry of
anomalies.
3. Pattern Recognition:
o Linear Anomalies: Indicate geological features like faults, dikes, or lithological
boundaries.
o Circular or Elliptical Anomalies: Suggestive of intrusive bodies like kimberlites
or volcanic plugs.
o Complex Patterns: Can indicate folded structures, multiple overlapping sources,
or variations in the depth and composition of the magnetic bodies.
4. Depth Estimation:
o Rule of Thumb Methods: Simple techniques like the half-width rule, where the
depth of the source is approximately half the width of the anomaly at half its
maximum amplitude.
o Gradient Analysis: The steepness of the anomaly gradient can provide clues
about the depth and shape of the source.
5. Correlation with Geological Data:
o Surface Geology: Comparing magnetic anomalies with known surface geological
features to infer subsurface extensions or hidden structures.
o Drillhole Data: Correlating anomalies with drillhole logs to validate
interpretations and refine models.
o Other Geophysical Data: Integrating magnetic data with gravity, seismic, or
electromagnetic surveys to provide a more comprehensive geological
interpretation.

Steps in Qualitative Interpretation

1. Initial Inspection:
o Examine the total field magnetic map to identify major anomalies and regional
trends.
o Note the location, size, shape, and intensity of anomalies.
2. Anomaly Classification:
o Categorize anomalies based on their shape and pattern (linear, circular, irregular).
o Assess the relative amplitude of anomalies to prioritize areas of interest.
3. Geological Correlation:
o Overlay magnetic data on geological maps to identify correlations with known
geological features.
o Use surface geological information to hypothesize the subsurface structure
responsible for the anomalies.
4. Structural Analysis:
o Identify and map linear features like faults and dikes.
o Look for patterns that indicate folded or intruded structures.
5. Depth Estimation and Source Characterization:
o Use simple rules and gradient analysis to estimate the depth and extent of the
sources.
 o Infer the possible composition of the sources based on the amplitude and pattern
of the anomalies.
6. Anomaly Prioritization:
o Rank anomalies based on their geological significance and exploration objectives.
o Focus detailed analysis on the most promising or significant anomalies.
7. Integration with Other Data:
o Combine magnetic interpretations with other geophysical and geological data.
o Use integrated data to refine interpretations and build more accurate subsurface
models.

Example Interpretation Scenarios

1. Mineral Exploration:
o High-Amplitude Positive Anomalies: Indicative of magnetite-rich ore bodies.
o Linear Positive Anomalies: Suggestive of iron-rich dikes or veins.
2. Oil and Gas Exploration:
o Negative Anomalies over Sedimentary Basins: Can indicate areas of thicker
sediment cover.
o Structural Traps: Faults and folds identified through magnetic patterns can
indicate potential hydrocarbon traps.
3. Geological Mapping:
o Mapping Faults and Shear Zones: Linear anomalies often align with fault lines
and shear zones.
o Intrusive Bodies: Circular anomalies can indicate buried igneous intrusions.
4. Archaeological Studies:
o Identifying Buried Structures: Subtle magnetic anomalies can reveal buried
walls, foundations, or other archaeological features.

Summary

Qualitative interpretation of magnetic data is a vital process in geophysical exploration,

providing insights into subsurface structures and compositions based on visual and pattern
recognition techniques. By analyzing magnetic anomalies in conjunction with geological data,
geophysicists can infer the presence of mineral deposits, geological structures, and other
subsurface features, guiding further exploration and investigation.

Quantitative Interpretation of Magnetic Data

Quantitative interpretation of magnetic data involves numerical analysis and modeling

techniques to derive detailed and precise information about the subsurface geology. This
approach converts magnetic field measurements into estimates of the geometry, depth, and
properties of magnetic sources.

Key Concepts and Techniques

 1. Magnetic Anomalies and Source Parameters:
o Anomaly Amplitude and Shape: Used to estimate the size, shape, and depth of
the magnetic source.
o Magnetic Susceptibility: A measure of how much a material becomes
magnetized in an external magnetic field. High susceptibility indicates
ferromagnetic minerals.
2. Depth Estimation:
o Euler Deconvolution: Uses the spatial gradients of the magnetic field to estimate
the depth and location of magnetic sources.
o Source Parameter Imaging (SPI): A technique that uses magnetic field
derivatives to estimate the depth of magnetic sources.
o Spectral Analysis: Analyzes the frequency content of magnetic anomalies to
estimate average depths to the top and bottom of magnetic sources.
3. Forward Modeling:
o Constructing Synthetic Models: Create models of the subsurface with assumed
geological features and calculate the expected magnetic response.
o Model Adjustment: Compare the synthetic magnetic response to observed data
and adjust the model parameters iteratively to minimize differences.
4. Inversion Techniques:
o Magnetic Inversion: Converts magnetic anomaly data directly into a 3D
distribution of magnetic susceptibility. This technique often involves solving a
large set of equations that relate magnetic data to the subsurface distribution of
magnetic materials.
o Constraints and Regularization: Apply geological constraints and regularization
techniques to stabilize the inversion and produce geologically plausible models.

Steps in Quantitative Interpretation

1. Data Preparation:
o Preprocessing: Apply diurnal corrections, filtering, and leveling to clean the data.
o Reduction to the Pole (RTP): Transform data to make interpretation simpler by
aligning anomalies directly over their sources.
2. Initial Depth Estimation:
o Euler Deconvolution:
 Apply Euler deconvolution to the magnetic data to obtain preliminary
depth estimates for different source locations.
o Source Parameter Imaging (SPI):
 Use SPI to generate a depth map of magnetic sources across the survey
area.
3. Spectral Analysis:
o Fourier Transform:
 Convert magnetic data to the frequency domain and analyze the spectral
content to estimate average depths of magnetic sources.
o Radially Averaged Power Spectrum:
 Compute the power spectrum of magnetic anomalies to estimate depths to
the top and bottom of magnetic sources.
 4. Forward Modeling:
o Model Construction:
 Build initial subsurface models based on geological knowledge and
preliminary depth estimates.
o Synthetic Data Calculation:
 Calculate the magnetic response of the initial model.
o Iterative Adjustment:
 Compare synthetic data with observed data and iteratively adjust model
parameters (e.g., shape, depth, susceptibility) to achieve a best fit.
5. Inversion:
o Initial Model:
 Create an initial susceptibility model based on geological constraints and
previous interpretations.
o Inversion Algorithm:
 Apply inversion algorithms to solve for the 3D distribution of magnetic
susceptibility that best explains the observed data.
o Regularization and Constraints:
 Use regularization techniques to smooth the model and apply geological
constraints to ensure realistic results.
6. Model Validation and Refinement:
o Validation with Independent Data:
 Compare inversion results with independent geological or geophysical
data (e.g., drillholes, seismic).
o Refinement:
 Refine the model iteratively using additional data and improved
constraints.

Example Techniques and Tools

1. Euler Deconvolution:
o Method:
 Solve the Euler homogeneity equation using spatial derivatives of the
magnetic field to estimate source locations and depths.
o Software:
 Commercial and open-source software packages provide tools for Euler
deconvolution.
2. Source Parameter Imaging (SPI):
o Method:
 Calculate depths to magnetic sources using field derivatives and spatial
gradients.
o Software:
 SPI tools are available in various geophysical software packages.
3. Spectral Analysis:
o Method:
 Analyze the frequency content of the magnetic field to estimate depths.
o Software:
 Spectral analysis can be performed using tools in geophysical processing

software like Oasis montaj or MATLAB.
4. Forward Modeling and Inversion:
o Method:
 Construct synthetic models and perform inversions to match observed
data.
o Software:
 Geosoft Oasis montaj, Encom ModelVision, and UBC-GIF MAG3D are
commonly used for forward modeling and inversion of magnetic data.

Summary

Quantitative interpretation of magnetic data involves sophisticated numerical techniques to

derive detailed information about subsurface geology. Through depth estimation, forward
modeling, and inversion, geophysicists can create accurate 3D models of magnetic susceptibility,
revealing the geometry and properties of magnetic sources. This rigorous approach enhances the
understanding of subsurface structures, aiding in mineral exploration, geological mapping, and
other geophysical applications.

QUESTIONS
Theory, Concept, and Instruments

1. What are the fundamental principles of magnetic methods in geophysics?

o How does the Earth's magnetic field interact with subsurface materials?
o What are the differences between induced and remanent magnetization in rocks?
2. What types of instruments are used in magnetic surveys and how do they function?
o How does a proton precession magnetometer measure the magnetic field?
o What are the advantages and limitations of using fluxgate magnetometers in
different survey environments?

Magnetic Survey

1. What are the primary types of magnetic surveys and their applications?
o How do ground surveys differ from airborne surveys in terms of data resolution
and area coverage?
o In what situations are marine magnetic surveys most effectively utilized?
2. How is a magnetic survey planned and executed?
o What factors influence the choice of line spacing and orientation in a magnetic
survey grid?
o How are diurnal variations accounted for during magnetic data acquisition?

Magnetic Data Processing

1. What are the key steps involved in processing magnetic data?

 o How is noise filtered out from raw magnetic data to improve signal quality?
o What is the purpose of reduction to the pole (RTP) in magnetic data processing?
2. How are anomalies identified and characterized during data processing?
o What techniques are used to separate regional trends from local anomalies in
magnetic data?
o How are derivative calculations employed to enhance the interpretation of
magnetic anomalies?

Qualitative Interpretation of Magnetic Data

1. What patterns and features are typically identified in qualitative interpretation of

magnetic data?
o How can linear magnetic anomalies indicate the presence of geological structures
such as faults or dikes?
o What do circular or elliptical anomalies suggest about subsurface geological
features?
2. How is qualitative interpretation integrated with other geological data?
o In what ways can magnetic data be correlated with surface geological maps?
o How does drillhole data validate and refine interpretations derived from magnetic
anomalies?

Quantitative Interpretation of Magnetic Data

1. What are the common techniques used for quantitative interpretation of magnetic
data?
o How does Euler deconvolution help in estimating the depth of magnetic sources?
o What role does forward modeling play in the interpretation of magnetic data?
2. How is inversion used to derive subsurface models from magnetic data?
o What are the key challenges in performing magnetic inversion, and how are they
addressed?
o How can inversion results be validated using independent geological or
geophysical data?