Module 2 GEOMAGNETISM: ORIGIN, PROPERTIES OF ROCK

Unit 1 Basic Facts in Magnetism

Unit 2 Nature of Geomagnetic Field
Unit 3 Characteristics of Magnetism in Rocks’ Components
Unit 4 Magnetization in Earth’s Rocks
Unit 5 Magnetic Measurement

Geomagnetism is a fascinating field of study that deals with Earth's magnetic field and its
interaction with various elements and processes on our planet.

Origin of Geomagnetism:
1. Earth's Core: Geomagnetism primarily originates from the Earth's core, more specifically,
the outer core. The outer core is composed mainly of molten iron and nickel. The movement of
this liquid metal, driven by heat from the inner core, generates electrical currents, creating a
dynamo effect.
2. Geodynamo Theory: This theory explains how convective motion in the outer core, coupled
with the Earth's rotation, produces the geomagnetic field. As the Earth rotates, the convective
motion of the liquid metal generates electrical currents, which in turn generate the magnetic
field.

Properties of Rocks Related to Geomagnetism

1. Magnetic Minerals: Certain minerals found in rocks, such as magnetite (Fe3O4), contain
magnetic properties. When these minerals crystallize in igneous rocks, they align themselves
with the prevailing magnetic field at the time. This alignment gets locked in as the rock
solidifies, providing a record of Earth's past magnetic field.

2. Paleomagnetism. The study of the magnetic properties of rocks is called paleomagnetism. By

analyzing the orientation and intensity of magnetic minerals in rocks, scientists can infer past
changes in Earth's magnetic field, including polarity reversals.

3. Magnetic Anomalies: Variations in the Earth's magnetic field strength and direction can be
detected using magnetometers. These variations, known as magnetic anomalies, can be caused
by variations in the composition and magnetization of rocks in the Earth's crust. For example,
regions with higher concentrations of magnetic minerals will exhibit stronger magnetic
anomalies.
4. Geomagnetic Reversals. Over geological time scales, the Earth's magnetic field has reversed
polarity numerous times, where the magnetic north and south poles switch places. Evidence of
these reversals is preserved in rocks, providing valuable insights into the history of Earth's
magnetic field and plate tectonics.

Understanding geomagnetism and its interaction with rocks not only helps us unravel the Earth's
geological history but also has practical applications in fields such as geology, archaeology, and
navigation.
 Nature of Geomagnetic Field

The geomagnetic field is a complex and dynamic magnetic field that surrounds the Earth,
extending from the planet's interior out into space. Here are some key aspects of its nature:

1. Dipolar Structure: At large scales, Earth's magnetic field can be approximated as a dipole,
similar to a bar magnet. This dipole is aligned roughly with the Earth's rotational axis, with
magnetic field lines extending from the magnetic south pole to the magnetic north pole.
2. Strength and Variation: The strength of the geomagnetic field varies across the Earth's surface,
typically ranging from about 25 to 65 microteslas (µT) at the Earth's surface. This strength can
vary over time and space due to factors such as the Earth's internal dynamo, variations in the
composition and conductivity of the Earth's crust, and external influences like solar activity.
3. Inclination and Declination: The geomagnetic field is not perfectly aligned with the Earth's
rotational axis. Instead, it inclines at an angle with respect to the surface at any given location.
This angle is called inclination. Additionally, the magnetic north pole, towards which compass
needles point, is not exactly aligned with the true geographic north pole. The angular difference
between magnetic north and true north is called declination.
4. Variability and Reversals: The geomagnetic field is not static but undergoes continuous
changes on various time scales. It exhibits short-term fluctuations due to solar activity and long-
term variations over geological time scales. Perhaps most notably, the Earth's magnetic field has
undergone numerous polarity reversals throughout its history, where the magnetic north and
south poles switch places.
5. Interaction with Solar Wind: Earth's magnetic field interacts with the solar wind, a stream of
charged particles emitted by the Sun. This interaction forms the magnetosphere, a region of
space around Earth where the geomagnetic field deflects and traps charged particles, protecting
the planet from the harmful effects of solar radiation.
6. Geomagnetic Anomalies: Variations in the strength and direction of the geomagnetic field
across the Earth's surface create geomagnetic anomalies. These anomalies can be measured using
magnetometers and are valuable for geological and geophysical studies, providing information
about the structure and composition of the Earth's crust.

Overall, the geomagnetic field is a fundamental aspect of Earth's physical environment, with
profound implications for both natural processes and human activities.

Characteristics of Magnetism in Rocks’ Components

The magnetism in rocks' components primarily arises from the presence of certain magnetic
minerals and their alignment with Earth's magnetic field during the rock's formation. Here are the
key characteristics:

1. Magnetic Minerals: Rocks contain various magnetic minerals, the most common being
magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), and maghemite (Fe2O3). These minerals possess
magnetic properties due to the arrangement of their atomic spins.
2. Magnetic Domains: Within magnetic minerals, the magnetic moments of individual atoms
align to form magnetic domains. In unmagnetized rocks, these domains are randomly oriented,
resulting in little to no net magnetic field.

3. Alignment with Earth's Field: When rocks form, such as during volcanic activity or
sediment deposition, magnetic minerals can align with Earth's magnetic field. This alignment
occurs as the minerals cool or solidify in the presence of the geomagnetic field, causing their
magnetic domains to align parallel to the field lines.

4. Remanent Magnetization: The alignment of magnetic minerals in rocks creates remanent

magnetization, which is the permanent magnetization retained by the rock after the removal of an
external magnetic field. This remanent magnetization provides a record of the Earth's magnetic
field at the time of the rock's formation.

5. Magnetic Susceptibility: The degree to which a rock can be magnetized in an external

magnetic field is quantified by its magnetic susceptibility. Rocks with higher concentrations of
magnetic minerals will generally exhibit higher magnetic susceptibilities.

6. Curie Temperature: The Curie temperature is the temperature at which a magnetic material
loses its permanent magnetization. Above this temperature, thermal energy disrupts the
alignment of magnetic domains. Different magnetic minerals have different Curie temperatures,
which can be used to infer past thermal histories of rocks.

7. Magnetic Anisotropy: Some rocks exhibit magnetic anisotropy, meaning that their magnetic
properties vary depending on the orientation of the sample. This can be due to factors such as
preferred orientation of magnetic minerals or the presence of aligned non-magnetic grains.

Understanding the characteristics of magnetism in rocks' components is essential for various

fields of study, including paleomagnetism, geology, and archaeology. By analyzing the magnetic
properties of rocks, scientists can infer information about Earth's magnetic field history,
geological processes, and even past climates.

Magnetization in Earth’s Rocks

Magnetization in Earth's rocks refers to the presence of magnetic properties within rock
formations. Here are some key points regarding magnetization in Earth's rocks:

1. Origin of Magnetization: Magnetization in Earth's rocks primarily arises from the alignment
of magnetic minerals with Earth's magnetic field during the rock's formation. This alignment
occurs when the rock is in a molten or partially molten state, allowing the magnetic minerals to
orient themselves parallel to the prevailing magnetic field lines.

2. Remanent Magnetization. Remanent magnetization is the permanent magnetization retained

by rocks after the removal of an external magnetic field. It serves as a record of Earth's magnetic
field at the time of rock formation. This remanent magnetization can be of two types:
  Thermal Remanent Magnetization (TRM)**: Arises from the alignment of magnetic
minerals in response to the Earth's magnetic field during cooling from high temperatures.
 Chemical Remanent Magnetization (CRM): Occurs due to chemical changes within the
rock after its formation, such as alteration of magnetic minerals over time.

3. Primary and Secondary Magnetization: Primary magnetization refers to the magnetization

acquired by rocks during their initial formation, while secondary magnetization can be acquired
later due to geological processes such as metamorphism or alteration. Distinguishing between
primary and secondary magnetization is crucial for interpreting the geological history recorded in
rocks.

4. Paleomagnetism: Paleomagnetism is the study of the magnetization of rocks and sediments to

determine the Earth's magnetic field's ancient orientation and intensity. By analyzing the
remanent magnetization of rocks of known ages and locations, scientists can reconstruct the
movement of tectonic plates, past climates, and even the occurrence of geomagnetic reversals.

5. Magnetic Anomalies: Variations in the intensity and direction of magnetization within Earth's
crust produce magnetic anomalies. These anomalies can be measured using magnetometers and
provide valuable information about the geological structure and composition of the subsurface,
aiding in mineral exploration and geological mapping.

6. Curie Temperature: The Curie temperature is the temperature at which magnetic minerals
lose their permanent magnetization. By studying the Curie temperatures of different magnetic
minerals within rocks, scientists can infer past thermal histories and geothermal gradients of the
Earth's crust.

Understanding the magnetization in Earth's rocks is essential for interpreting Earth's geological
history, past climates, tectonic movements, and even for practical applications such as mineral
exploration and navigation.

Magnetic Measurement

Magnetic measurement refers to the process of quantifying the magnetic properties of materials,
including rocks, minerals, and other substances. Here are the key aspects of magnetic
measurement:

1. Magnetic Field Strength: Magnetic field strength is typically measured using a magnetometer,
which detects the intensity of the magnetic field at a specific location. Magnetometers can
provide measurements in units such as teslas (T) or gauss (G), depending on the instrument's
sensitivity and range.

2. Magnetic Susceptibility: Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of how easily a material can be

magnetized in an external magnetic field. It quantifies the degree of magnetization per unit
 magnetic field strength. Magnetic susceptibility is often measured using a susceptometer or a
magnetic susceptibility meter and is expressed in dimensionless units or SI units (e.g., SI unit is
m^3/kg).

3. Remanent Magnetization: Remanent magnetization refers to the permanent magnetization

retained by a material after the removal of an external magnetic field. Remanent magnetization
can be measured using various techniques, including alternating field demagnetization, thermal
demagnetization, or direct measurement using magnetometers.

4. Magnetic Anomalies: Magnetic anomalies are variations in the Earth's magnetic field strength
and direction that deviate from the expected background magnetic field. These anomalies can be
measured using magnetometers, either on the ground or from airborne or satellite platforms.
Magnetic anomalies are crucial for geological and geophysical studies, including mineral
exploration, mapping of geological structures, and understanding tectonic processes.

5. Paleomagnetic Measurement: Paleomagnetic measurement involves the study of the

magnetization preserved in rocks and sediments to reconstruct past changes in the Earth's
magnetic field. Paleomagnetic measurements often involve sampling rocks in the field, analyzing
their magnetic properties in the laboratory, and interpreting the data to infer geological history,
past climates, and tectonic movements.

6. Curie temperature Measurement: Curie temperature is the temperature at which a magnetic

material loses its permanent magnetization. Curie temperature measurements can provide
information about the thermal history of rocks and minerals. These measurements are typically
performed using laboratory techniques such as thermal demagnetization or differential scanning
calorimetry.

Overall, magnetic measurement techniques play a crucial role in various scientific disciplines,
including geophysics, geology, mineral exploration, environmental studies, and materials
science. These measurements provide valuable insights into the magnetic properties of materials
and their significance in natural and engineered systems.

Questions

1. Define magnetic field strength and magnetic susceptibility. Discuss their significance in
magnetic measurements.

 Explain how magnetic field strength is measured and provide an example of a device used for
this purpose.
 Define magnetic susceptibility and describe how it relates to a material's magnetizability.
 Discuss why measuring magnetic field strength and susceptibility is important in various
scientific and engineering applications.
2. Describe the process of remanent magnetization measurement. Include the techniques used
and their applications.

 Explain what remanent magnetization is and why it is important in paleomagnetic studies.

 Describe two different techniques for measuring remanent magnetization and compare their
advantages and limitations.
 Provide examples of how remanent magnetization measurements have been applied in geological
and archaeological research.

3. What are magnetic anomalies, and how are they measured? Discuss the significance of
magnetic anomalies in geophysical exploration.

 Define magnetic anomalies and explain how they arise in Earth's magnetic field.
 Describe the methods used to measure magnetic anomalies, including ground-based and airborne
techniques.
 Discuss how magnetic anomalies are used in mineral exploration, mapping geological structures,
and understanding tectonic processes.

4. Explain the concept of paleomagnetic measurement. Describe the steps involved in

conducting a paleomagnetic study and interpreting the results.

 Define paleomagnetism and explain how it provides information about Earth's magnetic field
history.
 Outline the steps involved in conducting a paleomagnetic study, from field sampling to
laboratory analysis.
 Discuss how paleomagnetic measurements can be used to reconstruct past climates, tectonic
movements, and geological events.

5. Describe the measurement of Curie temperature in magnetic materials. Discuss its

significance in understanding the thermal history of rocks and minerals.

 Define Curie temperature and explain why it is relevant to magnetic materials.

 Describe the experimental techniques used to measure Curie temperature in laboratory settings.
 Discuss how Curie temperature measurements can provide insights into the thermal history of
rocks and minerals and their geological significance.

6. Compare and contrast the techniques of thermal demagnetization and alternating field
demagnetization in paleomagnetic studies.

 Explain the principles behind thermal demagnetization and alternating field demagnetization.
 Discuss the advantages and limitations of each technique in terms of their applicability and
effectiveness.
 Provide examples of situations where one technique might be preferred over the other in
paleomagnetic research.

7. Discuss the role of magnetic susceptibility measurements in characterizing geological

materials. Provide examples of how variations in magnetic susceptibility can be used to
interpret geological processes.

 Explain how magnetic susceptibility measurements are conducted and what information they
provide about geological materials.
 Describe two examples where variations in magnetic susceptibility are used to interpret
geological processes, such as sedimentation or metamorphism.
 Discuss the importance of understanding magnetic susceptibility in fields like mineral
exploration, environmental studies, and archaeology.

8. Explain the significance of magnetic anisotropy in rock magnetism. Describe how magnetic
anisotropy measurements are conducted and their applications in geophysics.

 Define magnetic anisotropy and explain how it influences the magnetic properties of rocks.
 Describe the techniques used to measure magnetic anisotropy in laboratory settings.
 Discuss how magnetic anisotropy measurements can be applied to understand the structural and
tectonic history of rocks and their implications for geophysical studies.

9. Illustrate the differences between primary and secondary magnetization in rocks. Provide
examples of geological processes that can lead to secondary magnetization.

 Define primary and secondary magnetization and explain how they differ in terms of origin and
significance.
 Describe two geological processes that can lead to secondary magnetization in rocks, such as
metamorphism or alteration.
 Discuss why distinguishing between primary and secondary magnetization is important in
interpreting the geological history recorded in rocks.

10. Discuss the challenges and limitations associated with magnetic measurements in geological
and environmental studies. Provide strategies for overcoming these challenges.

 Identify three challenges commonly encountered in magnetic measurements in geological and

environmental studies.
 Describe potential sources of error or uncertainty in magnetic measurements and their
implications for data interpretation.
 Propose strategies or techniques for minimizing errors and improving the reliability of magnetic
measurements in challenging environments or geological settings.