Concept mapping, mind mapping and argument mapping: what are the differences and

do they matter?
Author(s): Martin Davies
Source: Higher Education , September 2011, Vol. 62, No. 3 (September 2011), pp. 279-301
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41477852

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Higher
Education

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301
DOI 1 0. 1007/s 1 0734-0 1 0-9387-6

Concept mapping, mind mapping and argument

mapping: what are the differences and do they matter?

Martin Davies

Published online: 27 November 2010

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract In recent years, academics and educators have begun to use software map-
ping tools for a number of education-related purposes. Typically, the tools are used t
help impart critical and analytical skills to students, to enable students to see rela-
tionships between concepts, and also as a method of assessment. The common featu
of all these tools is the use of diagrammatic relationships of various kinds in preferen
to written or verbal descriptions. Pictures and structured diagrams are thought to be
more comprehensible than just words, and a clearer way to illustrate understanding o
complex topics. Variants of these tools are available under different names: "concep
mapping", "mind mapping" and "argument mapping". Sometimes these terms are used
synonymously. However, as this paper will demonstrate, there are clear differences i
each of these mapping tools. This paper offers an outline of the various types of tool
available and their advantages and disadvantages. It argues that the choice of mapping
tool largely depends on the purpose or aim for which the tool is used and that the too
may well be converging to offer educators as yet unrealised and potentially comple
mentary functions.

Keywords Concept mapping • Mind mapping • Computer-aided argument mapping •

Critical thinking • Argument • Inference-making • Knowledge mapping

Introduction

In the past 5-10 years, a variety of software packages have been developed that enable th
visual display of information, concepts and relations between ideas. These mapping to
take a variety of names including: "concept mapping", "mind mapping" or "argumen
mapping". The potential of these tools for educational purposes is only now starting to b
realised.

M. Davies (El)
University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 280 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

The idea of displaying complex inf

charts, for example, were developed
other visual formats go back much
have been used to simplify complex
"mapping" complex information - as
other destinations - began at least 30
More recently, the use of informatio
mapping to be achieved with far gr
developed to meet various informatio
their similarities and differences?
precisely do they enhance teaching an
reviews three most commonly used
information mapping tool to be used
intended. A clear understanding of th
educators as yet unrealised and poten
student learning.

The purpose and justification for m

The over-riding aim of all mapping

manipulate a complex set of relationsh
those relationships, remember them,
turn, promotes "deep" and not "surf
1981; Marton and Saljo 1976a, b; Ram
also much easier to follow than verbal
to be made in terms of the kinds of "
(Larkin and Simon 1987; Mayer and
making requires more active engagem
greater learning (Twardy 2004).
There is empirical support for the us
knowledge. Evidence from the cogni
learning (Vekiri 2002; Winn 1991). M
memory in visual and well as propos
tion" or "dual coding" (Kulhavy et a
former hypothesis, representations ar
representations are synchronously o
representations are hierarchically org
terms, processing information verba
using more than one modality. In a l
cation of mapping tools and why they
While the overriding objectives of m
their application. Mind mapping all
between concepts; concept mapping
between concepts and hence unders
which they belong; argument mappin
between propositions and contentions,
ment structure and the soundness of
outlines each tool and briefly review

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 281

The mapping tools

An attempt has recently been made

different mapping techniques (Epple
recent computer-aided mapping tool
paper and outlines three key types
argument mapping with an emphasis

Mind mapping

Mind mapping (or "idea" mapping) ha

of ideas and their relationships' (Bi
network of connected and related co
connected to any other. Free-form, sp
map, and the aim of mind mapping
mind maps are principally associatio
began with Buzan (Buzan 1974; Buzan
line thicknesses, colours, pictures a
makes the following recommendati
example.com/samples.php, Buzan an

1 . Place an image or topic in the ce

2. Use images, symbols, codes, and d
3. Select key words and print using
4. Each word/image is alone and sit
5. Connect the lines starting from
organic and flowing, becoming thin
6. Make the lines the same length a
7. Use colours - your own code - th
8. Develop your own personal style
9. Use emphasis and show associatio
10. Keep the Mind Map clear by usin
embrace your branches.

Concept maps, as we shall see, do not

An example of a mind map on the top
Fig. 1.
The main use of mind mapping is to create an association of ideas. However, another
use is for memory retention - even if the advantages in the case of mind mapping might be
marginal (Farrand et al. 2002b). It is generally easier to remember a diagram than to
remember a description. Others have suggested, however, that content is more central to
learning than the format in which that content is presented (Pressley et al. 1998).
Mind mapping has been used in a variety of disciplines, including Finance (Biktimirov
and Nilson 2006), Economics (Nettleship 1992), Marketing (Eriksson and Hauer 2004),
Executive Education (Mento et al. 1999), Optometry (McClain 1987) and Medicine
(Farrand et al. 2002a). It is also widely used in professions such as Fine Art and Design,
Advertising and Public Relations.1

1 A list of mind mapping software is available ("List of Mind Mapping Software," 2008) and ("Software
for Mind mapping and Information Storage," 2008).

Ö Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
282 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

Fig. 1 A Mind Map ("Mind Maps Made W

The advantages of mind mapping inc

There are no limits on the ideas and
retain an ideal structure or format.
encourages "brainstorming". A disad
being made are limited to simple as
constraint. Mind maps have been sai
hard for others to read; representin
inconsistent in terms of level of d
picture" (Eppler 2006; Zeilik, nd). M
complex relationships. For example,
things that are critical for students to
provided). However, it is hard to se
understanding of how one concept
topicsrequire more than an associatio
concept mapping has been developed

Concept mapping

Concept mapping is often confused wi

1999). However, unlike mind mapp
pictorial in nature. The aim of concep
elements but to outline relationships
device. A concept map has a hierarch
dinate parts (primary, secondary and
or concept or phrase which represent
Cañas 2006). Cross-links using conne
"leads to", "results from", "is part

Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 283

concepts represented. Examples (no

instances but these are not enclosed in
instances of a concept. Two quite di
question: What is the purpose of con
The difference between mind map
precision and formality. Mind maps
formal and generally more tightly st
to aid recall of associations; concept
tional phrases to aid understanding
variety of forms ranging from hierar
maps where the input determines t
involves a statistical process known
made of terms that appear in a tex

Fig. 2 Two different Novakian-style con

conceptmap.html) (from "Concept Map," 2

Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 284 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

/^IfiOfíiYOfrKmi

z^x ^ "*» ^ yorjctoljjy

' ' IMlw«8« ' / /_'
' ' "W^l

' x-^wbouf' , /t'

by woit(®rs / J m
- i lab0ur/M0rt(lblct /

/ y/ LO.tS

VçySV V
/^•^cturailT^,
'|JiMoe*to»i mafldMnp/ '^m«icn«|y

Fig. 3 Non-linear concept map on labour market economics

"clustered" to form a diagrammatic representation (Jackson and Trochim 2002; Trochim

1989).
A non-hierarchical, style of concept map on the influence of labour market on the
economy is given in Fig. 3. While non-hierarchical, this map has more similarities to a
concept map than a mind map as it endeavours to establish appropriate relationships
between the economic concepts rather than simple associations. However, it has similarities
to a mind map as well in terms of its looser, non-hierarchical, unstructured form.
The development of concept mapping has been attributed to the work of Novak as early
as 1972 and his work on children's developing knowledge of science concepts (Novak and
Cañas 2006). This work, in turn, was inspired by the work of learning psychologist
Ausubel (Ausubel 1963). The mapping technique was refined further (Novak 1981) and
then extended to the educational context (Novak and Gowin 1984). The resulting diagrams
are sometimes known as "Novakian maps" in honour of their founder. As noted, alter-
native approaches are also available (Jackson and Trochim 2002).
Recent additions to the Novakian format include attempts to capture "cyclical" rela-
tionships representing complex natural and social systems (Safayeni et al. 2005). Tech-
nology has aided the popularity of concept mapping by means of dedicated software tools
such as CMap Tools (Cañas et al. 2004) and Compendium.2 Such is the interest in concept
mapping, an annual international conference began in 2005.
There are several stages in developing a Novakian concept map. However, the stages
are very different from developing a mind map:

2 Cmap Tools is available free from the Institute of Human and Machine Cognition (http://www.ihmc.us).
Compendium is available from the Open University (http://www.labspace.open.ac.uk). A list of concept
mapping software is available here ("List of Concept Mapping Software," 2008).

Ö Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 285

1. Develop a declarad ve-ty pe focus

2. Devise a "parking lot" of conce
inflation,
and the question to be ans
The resulting concepts may or ma
2006). The concepts are placed in c
3. Put concepts in hierarchical ord
skeleton map" can be started by a
process, aid student participation an
the map themselves with the focus
4. Link lines are then provided betw
The conventions have changed ov
mapping. Arrows were originally
concept with a higher concept. How
concept mappers to allow for arro
5. Devise suitable cross-links for k
prepositional phrases are used mos
with", "will lead to", "involves", "d
show the relationship between the k
elements.

6. Add examples to the terminal points of a map representing the concepts. These are not
enclosed in boxes or circles to delineate them as instances of a concept.

Since its inception as a formal technique, concept mapping has been widely used in
academic disciplines, for example, Accounting (Chei-Chang 2008; Irvine et al. 2005;
Leauby and Brazina 1998; Maas and Leauby 2005; Simon 2007; van der Laan and Dean
2006), Finance (Biktimirov and Nilson 2003), Engineering (Walker and King 2002),
Statistics (Schau and Mattern 1997), Reading Comprehension (Mealy and Nist 1989),
Biology (Kinchin 2000), Nursing (Baugh and Mellott 1998; King and Shell 2002; Schuster
2000; Wilkes et al. 1999), Medicine (Hoffman et al. 2002; McGaghie et al. 2000; West
et al. 2000), Nursing (Beitz 1998) and Veterinary Science (Edmonson 1993).
Research has also been done on concept mapping as an assessment tool (Gouveia and
Valadares 2004; Jonassen et al. 1997; van der Laan and Dean 2006) and as a way to assist
academics in course design (Amundsen at al. 2008) and in managing qualitative data
(Daley 2004). Several empirical studies have ascertained the validity of the use of concept
maps (Markham et al. 1994; Ruiz-Primo and Shavelson 1996).
The main advantage of concept mapping is precisely its relational aim. Concept maps
enable relational links to be made between relevant concepts. In the educational context, it
is claimed that meaningful learning best takes place by linking new concepts to existing
knowledge (Craik and Lockhart 1972; Maas and Leauby 2005). Concept maps enable 'the
elements of [learning] to relate to how cognitive knowledge is developed structurally by
the learner' (Maas and Leauby 2005, p. 77).
The main disadvantages of concept mapping are that they require some expertise to
learn; they can be idiosyncratic in terms of design; and because of their complexity they
may not always assist memorability, with learners faced with designing concepts maps
often feeling overwhelmed and de- motivated (Beitz 1998; Eppler 2006; Kinchin 2001).
Others have noted that the rigid rules used for identifying concepts and their multiple
relationships does not make the process simple or easily to learn, and the linear nature of
concept maps mean that they are not adequate to capture more complex relationships

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 286 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

between concepts. In particular, they

importance from those of secondary
It is also impossible to distinguish
arguments using a concept map. For
map that canvasses the causes and eff
such as this, multiple causes can be
major disadvantage of concept mappin
concepts. Many issues require more t
cepts; they require arguments to be
objections to those positions. For ex
could represent an argument for the
the global currency crisis ". This kind
This is, of course, not the fault of th
that was designed for a different purp
led to the development of a new kind

Argument mapping

A relatively recent innovation, deve

ping (CAAM). Available in a wide-ran
different purpose entirely from mi
concerned with explicating the inferen
are the main feature of associative c
relationships in concept maps, inferen
of argument maps.
"Arguments" are understood in th
joined together to result in claims
defending the proposition that The
Fig. 4. At the first (top) level of the a
this example by a supporting claim
(under the link word "but"). These ar
objection (which become rebuttals wh
claims, objections and rebuttals are c
vide defence for the terminal claims,
Objections and rebuttals to objections
colours for easier visual identificati
argument also require evidence in pla
provided ("statistics", "expert opini
Unlike mind mapping and concept
inferential basis for a claim being de
tionships between the main claim a
automatically-generated description
argument formats - provided with th
prose version of the argument comple
this function is presently underdevel
university-style assignment. Howev
software tools are headed.

3 Harrell provides a comprehensive list of argument mapping software (Harrell 2008).

Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 287

Fig. 4 Argument map using the software R

As noted, CAAM is still fairly new

demonstrating its impact on student
(Twardy 2004; van Gelder 2001; v
improvement in critical thinking ski
post-test by a 0.72 gain of standard
onstrated an even
of 0.8 s higher gain
demonstrated greatest gains in stude
separate studies over the course of o
The main advantage argument mapp
that it focuses on a certain sub-cla
propositions). It also puts limitations
in which arguments - and not relat
tually, all reasons have to be ground
boxes for assumptions. These are th
mapping and concept mapping, conn
A weakness of argument mapping
capture looser, more tangential rela
with a very precise purpose. However
why the advantages of argument m
other available tools, and with additio
Another disadvantage of argument
educational context, argument mapp
ciently clear understanding of a topic
However, this understanding may oft

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 288 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

the scope of the issue to be addressed

faced with an essay topic as:

• The changing roles of men and wo

Students may initially create a series

their society, the society in which the
countries generally. They may never a
what respects (or for whom) they mig
"good" means). They may not consider
changes that have taken place over
Assignment topics are often deliberate
abilities in deconstructing the meaning
Working out what needs to do in an
important step, to being able to map a
considerable amount of initial reading
coming to an understanding of the exa
process that the student can map an ar
with these preparatory steps. Howeve
mapping technologies might be able
Table 1 summarises the differences
this paper.
Notice that argument mapping shares the hierarchical form with concept mapping,
and - in some variants at least - argument mapping shares the design principles of colours,
shading, and line thicknesses with mind mapping. Note too the increasing level of
sophistication in the tools. Where mind maps have a high degree of generality in their
application, concept maps are more specific (focussing on relational factors) and argument
mapping is the least general (more specific) in application of all. This indicates, in one
sense, some degree of perhaps unintended evolutionary sophistication in the development
of these tools. In the final section of this paper, suggestions will be made on the new
directions that this evolution might take.
An important area of difference between the mapping techniques is in the register and
formality of language used, i.e., the differences in linguistic "granularity" (see column to
far right of table). Whereas in mind mapping the language is fairly "loose", and can
capture a variety of associative relationships, in argument mapping the linguistic rela-
tionships are limited to whole propositions or statements linked by logical connectors such
as "because" or "however". Argument mapping requires precise rules of construction.
This forces explicit connections between propositions (from premises to conclusions or
contentions). Argument mapping thereby demonstrates a specific utility and considerable
fitness to purpose. Mind mapping does not have these constraints. Concept mapping
occupies a space in-between the loose and tightly constrained language in argument maps,
and the looser, tangential, associative language of mind maps. Concept maps typically
involve the use of prepositional phrases such as "in relation to", "is a result of', and so on;
but, as we have seen, sometimes these rules are not adhered to. Compare, for example, the
very different examples of concept maps given earlier. The non-linear economics concept
map has elements of a more constrained mind map as well as having similarities to a
concept map.
This highlights an important difference in terms of flexibility. Mind maps can some-
times take on similarities to concept maps, and can occupy a more structured place further
along the continuum between the three mapping types. It has a wider utility. This is not

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 289

-o
u- c (U
S V .S
S2 -ti co
'5b ¡3 h:
D 22
D 22 3
^2c«c«
c
<u C g °
ôû 2 c °
3 " «> « c I £
ÛX) " g ^ £
Il J s P

I la -2
-

U £
-2 D

3 îa ..s% 1
0 JE O -o ïC
« r & âs öo o
c« yII C
y2C c
1 2
- 8.
_c I "
V £ «» e c - ^ _
O !>
!> D? O..-i
C/3 Di-~¡-
i ^ D
D
> .-Sa « « co 3 >
m ÎZ 3 c tr" 'S ^ ^
m g .2 ÎZ o § c tr" - 'S c ^ g £ ^
1 8.8 I'0-j££ ~ w g
j < £ ~ »s w

Ôû
.£

.8 »1 g
£ ^ D | " O
^ C S m O ÔÛ
m = s 3 « u -s
• - «i O ® ^ c/f 12
.£ C -.£.£CCws o
.£ Oco .£
O 2«s
c .£ g £
J J < -J

. . 1 c
C/3 V¡ CO CO
£ îi 'S W) M 5/3 Si
•SO
£ 3Ü
I ^ .2^W)-O
gMo
s 5/3
oS ~
Si
Z 0 u CQ CQ

e c ^ ^ ^
CO

£ o I 2 E 2 2
1 ■r■r
-„ w J.
w «s. D *0
J. «s. D (U ^ D*0 (U ,8 ^ D
g ¡S
GO
c 51 w s" D sM3M (U D
'a.
Q.
CO

B - "c0 *co
d £ ,r .a « .a «
ÛO £ Ü .a 2^
-a
D
3 .S C 73 P 7 H 7
'S
o
aa 22c c
o o£?Ü
2 .a S2.a S
ë S e ë 8
c go Z EX
M
c
D
d

d
X) c/T f« t¡
if;
D
0
1 & Co J2
■- i 3a
o *3 CX

1 c
D O
o 7> *3

I
D C

't3
D
xi
xi .£ £ £ ^ 1| .£ I
g
«4-1
O
sO oo!5/3
•O- O
3
c/3 t/3
-8 1 « D
U 3 D

&
D
«3c0•-
(« £
U OOyC
71 D
D '£
c
o O •-- •- D c 4)
cO Cl. O OU ea u O «-
S u c« o £ u a
3 2 ^ D «g W W
£ eu < 2 oí £
3
C/3

^ c
^ íí D
«2 Çi« 1/3 C 0/5
D
S
A
H
JE § E 2? E
S u <

^ Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 290 High Educ (2011) 62:279-301

the case with argument maps whic

asymmetry in terms of the degree
The rules for mind mapping do no
process or the nature of knowledge
sometimes take on the characterist
satisfy the rules for an argument
application are much stricter. A co
but is closer in form to a mind
anonymous reviewer for this point

Why mapping tools work

The most important reason for the w

to benefit student learning. The ed
briefly in "The purpose and justifi
which might explain why mapping

Knowledge mapping allows meaning

Hay et al. usefully distinguish bet

ingful learning" (Hay et al. 2008
(Jarvis 1992; Kolb and Fry 1975) a
they track changes in knowledge tha
to university students (Hay et al.
ments in meaningful learning occu
control groups.
They find that non-learning occu
before and after the presentation of
mation is added (or rejected) in a stud
made between the new or substitute
but do not think about it or relate it
by contrast, occurs when new perspe
prior concepts of the student. The
concept mapping can Significantly ad
meaningful learning (Hay et al. 200

Mapping allows the presentation of

Having a source of prior knowledge

to "scaffold" new learning. This en
grams incorporating prose- such as t
to represent new information better
2007). This, in turn, allows efficient
memory. There are two reasons wh
information and also complements wh
learning. Let us take each of these p

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 291

Fig. 5 Different kinds of learning in an inte

conditions (Hay et al. 2008, p. 299)

Usability

Maps make new information more usable. Usable information can be more easily pro-
cessed. This is why we draw maps in preference to providing long and detailed verbal
directions. Usability has, of course, been a driving force for improvements in other areas. A
fountain pen, and a ball-point pen, both aid in the skill of writing; so does a word pro-
cessor. The word processor improves on earlier writing tools by being more usable. A
beginner's windsurfing board provides a more usable way of improving windsurfing skills
(by being larger and more stable) than an "expert" board. The traditional manner of
presenting and understanding information is, of course, in prose (either spoken in a lecture
or written in textbooks). Mapping devices, it is claimed, are now more usable than prose
and results in improvements in teaching and learning.
More usable information is better in improving skill development than less usable
information. As noted by Hay et. al. the basic methodology of university teaching has
remained unchanged for centuries, despite transformations in other areas of the tertiary
sector in the past few decades. Learning simply by reading textbooks, or listening to a
presentation (incorporating linear-structured Powerpoint slides) is far more likely to result
in non-learning or rote learning (Hay et al. 2008). However, if students are asked to study,
draw or manipulate a map of what they have learned, this may yield improved learning
because it is more usable (the activity of making a map is also important, as discussed
below). This is because maps aid in linking new information with what they already know.

Complementation

Mapping augments the brain's ability to understand, retrieve and process information. It
does this by complementing what the human brain can already do (albeit imperfectly). In
the cognitive science literature, this is known as complementation. Our memory stores are
seriously limited - some suggest as limited as holding only four pieces of information at a

Ö Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 292 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

time (Cowan 2000). Similarly, our ab

mation and sift them from irrelevant
efficiently because diagrams are mo
resentational formats (Larkin and Si
and justification for mapping tools",
encoding of information in memory

Mapping allows students to build ne

links by active engagement

The educational literature suggests

promoting deeper learning. When stu
lasting knowledge representations in
focus recently has moved from what
centred learning), to what the teach
learning), to a focus now on what
material) (Biggs 1999). Increasingly,
engagement activities, such as problem
students in learning and narrow the
and those less inclined.
By contrast, Hay et al. note that conventional teaching formats in the university envi-
ronment involve simple "narrative chains" delivered in a "linear" manner typically on
Powerpoint slides. This material is designed to be accessible to students, but it conceals
deep and complex networks of tacit scholarly information. The way information that is
taught to students was originally understood and constructed by academics themselves is
rarely explained. Constrained by the time-scheduling required in any given academic year,
well-intentioned teachers try to circumvent the process of learning for their students. This
paradoxically usually results in less meaningful learning. It results in 'linearity rather than
connectivity out of which genuine understanding arises' (Hay et al. 2008, p. 306). It also
fosters a lack of engagement critical to the development of meaningful understanding. To
meet assessment demands, students begin to rely on memorisation techniques and cram-
ming, not meaningful activities to ensure engagement and learning, and ultimately - via a
transformative learning cycle - expertise. This failure to allow opportunities for engage-
ment leads naturally to non-learning or simple rote learning (Fig. 6).
Hay et al. recommends that teachers take the time to construct knowledge maps and
explain their understanding of any given topic. They are less specific about the various
forms that this mapping might take. They are concerned in their paper with the pro-
mulgation of concept maps as a teaching and learning tool. However, as we have seen in
this paper, knowledge or information mapping is available in a number of discrete forms.
All forms of mapping have their place in the context of teaching and learning. Maps of
associations (mind maps), causes and effects/relationships (concept maps) and maps of
reasoning (argument maps) should all be presented in lectures in preference to linear
narrative chains. This enables teachers to show the often tacit connections that exist
between related academic areas. This would have a secondary benefit of allowing stu-
dents to check their own understanding. Requiring students to devise maps of their
learning for assessment, and encouraging them to compare and contrast those maps with
fellow students is an additional activity that can promote and encourage meaningful
learning.

Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 293

Fig. 6 The narrative sequence involves an e

adopt meaningful learning [4] or memorisa
only if engagement with the material is a
patterns drawing upon prior knowledge. Thi

A convergence of mapping tools?

This next section is somewhat spec

mapping tools have complementary
tool; concept mapping provides a w
focuses on maps of inferential struct
is already available to enable a conv
function to improve student learning
pedagogical advantages of map-makin
needed is a way of combining these
flexibility and power than the separa
done on a complementary approach i
maps and visual metaphors into an
conceptual diagrams, then mind maps
2006). However, this approach did no
mapping, and treats the mapping to
that does the role of each of the map
What would a convergent mappin
linking concept mapping software
Library Network (https://glsn.com
downloading of supporting evidence
Dean 2006). This has a number of a
demonstrate their understanding of a

^ Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 294 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

they can demonstrate, at minimum, t

surface learning); second, that they u
deeper form of learning requiring ana
relevant external material (or material
the map. This third form of learning
Each form of learning can, of cours
indication to teaching staff of the lev
Work has also been done on providing
preference to written assignments
work has been done on all the knowled
What has not been done is work on ho
If the various mapping tools can be in
one thing, the disadvantages and limit
An example will make this clear.
An excerpt from a concept map on a
relationship between revenues and ca
can see that as a concept map it meets
key concepts. However, in the map, th
argument for why revenue may be "
draw a concept map of this kind with
financial practices themselves. The
cannot tell from the map provided w
This knowledge may need to be assess
exams, or tutorial participation.
Alternatively, students may be require
concept map to nodes in the map th
demonstrate a greater level of underst
in the concept map and be accessibl
simultaneously or separately.
This way of checking understandin
greater level of generality, mind map
kind of learning. For example, at the

Revenue (sales)
defined as: Price of
goods and services
sold

And may be And may be

^ f And may

( IPaid
V
in ' ( Paid
( advance Paid ' ) I tim
V advance
y ' sales j J
y I ' C

Fig. 7 A partial concept map on the

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 295

is stated formally as a definition. H

sidered other associated features of
learned or copied this definition fro
mind map showing all the associated
the student understood the concep
associated concepts, and could dem
schematic plan of how the comparativ
presented in Fig. 8.
A convergence of mapping tools m
("Argument mapping"), to assist stud
to help with the preparatory stages
topic:

• The changing roles of men and women have been good for a society. Discuss.

The point was made that mapping tools provide little assistance with tasks such as these,
which require a clear understanding of task requirements. A fully-converged mapping tool
should be able to assist students in developing this understanding. If this understanding can
be sequenced as a series of manageable stages, this should be able to be integrated into the
computational routines of a software package and form part of a converged mapping
platform.

Fig. 8 Proposed convergence of knowledge mapping technologies into a single integrated platform. The
central concept map may be devised initially to demonstrate familiarity with the relationship between key
concepts in a topic. At given points, or "nodes", certain concepts may be further elaborated in terms of
associative structures (mind maps), and inferential or logical arguments (argument maps). NB: Maps
provided are illustrative only

^ Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 296 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

Understanding how to approach an

number of steps (although the steps m
have been discussed elsewhere in de

• The deconstruction phase. This in

given essay topic provided by a lec
"good", "society"). It also involves
provided by the instructor (e.g., "
• The representation phase. This invo
of the proposed essay, i.e., what to
different from a mind map, conc
"brainstorming" the form or stru
opposed to a knowledge map requi
should be presented, and the order o
vice versa). Typically, the essay stru
the assignment topic given by a l
arrangement of ideas within each se
• The issues phase. This involves furt
terms in an essay topic (e.g., what d
for society?" In what sense?) This r
needed in the essay. This part of the
and mind mapping.
• The research phase. This involves
points made in an essay (e.g., the
databases).
• The argument phase. This involves
wide reading. Argument mapping m
• The writing phase. Written assessm
genres: essays, empirical reports, an
ries and critiques, case studies, and s
clear and flowing prose - the point o
the structural requirements are ve
among the genres. At postgraduat
involves an "funnel" structure that
under consideration, to the gap in th
the thesis statement and then an o
"Discussion" sections in report writ
well. In general, good academic wr
"specific", and uses an arrangement
and support for those ideas (e.g., sup

An integrated mapping software sho

might be possible in further develo
might happen are provided below:

• Assignment topics could be entered

Key parameters of a topic, such as i
terms, etc. could also be added by l
of a common course or subject cod

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
High Educ (20 1 1 ) 62:279-30 1 297

• Key noun phrases might be highligh

trigger mind maps of associated key t
explained with an in-built glossary o
discipline areas.
• Templates for developing "block" and
available. (A "block" essay presents all
"disadvantages" for a topic first, the
"chain" essay presents one point, then
point against, and so on).
• Issues for students to consider might
key terms entered and ranked by relev
• Search statements of key terms, e.g.
(Gender role OR Sex role) AND (Good
be automatically constructed from sub
databases might also be linked to the s
• Writing templates for different section
case-style reports, etc.) might be ma
students and which follows the accep
universities. Attempts have been mad
student writing that use predictable s
between ideas and support for ideas u
couste 2005). These taxonomies could b
An example of this is provided in Fig.

Beyond defining key topic and task wor

might also be assisted by an integrated
questions. Questions are always easier for
example, the example provided previou
transformed into: Have the changing ro
student can then be directed to a temp
changing roles have been good), "YES b
with minor exceptions to this view), "y
good, however, there are major exception
not been good) (for an elaboration of thi
into an argument map proforma which c
This paper has been somewhat speculat
verged mapping tool might take us in the
Implementation is, of course, much harde
discussedin this paper help students with
Perhaps an integrated knowledge mappi
recognise the writing process and the con
these conventions.

Conclusion

This paper has argued that there are sound reasons to consider knowledge-mapping in
various forms as a supplement to other teaching and learning activities. The paper ha
outlined the differences between the main forms of map-making: mind maps, concept ma

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 298 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

Numerous studies have focused on ...(S

that ...(FINDINGS)., while others have ad
of. . .(THEORETICAL STANCE).

Factors affect
et al (1997) and

Neville's study focused on

Brady & Hill, on the other hand, were able to demonstrate that.... < -
The findings of Brady & Hill support earlier research by Davidson
et al (1997).

Davidson et al found that ....

A more t
in

For example, Hudson et al (2001) applied the

theory to . . . and demonstrated that ...

Similarly, Ferguson's (
perspective, suggests that ..

Research in this area, therefore, provides some conflicting results. Firstly, it has 4
been shown that.... More recent research, however, ....

Fig. 9 A template for a writing taxonomy (Rochecouste 2005)

and argument maps, and has provided an educational justification

claims that the choice of a given mapping tool largely depends
which the tool is used. However, the paper also suggests that
converging to offer educators as yet unrealised and potentially co
While the idea of using knowledge maps is decades old, it is only
century that this kind of map-making has come of age. This d
teaching and learning tools for both students and teachers that wi
directions in education in the future.

Acknowledgments My thanks to Tim Beaumont and two anonymous reviewers from the journal for
useful comments on earlier versions of this paper.

References

Ahlberg, M. (1993). Concept maps, vee diagrams, and Rhetorical Argumentation (RA) analysis: Three
educational theory-based tools to facilitate meaningful learning. Paper presented at the Third Inter-
national Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Mathematics, Cornell University. Available from.

Sorineer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 299

Ahlberg, M. (2004). Varieties of concept map

Concept Mapping, Pamplona, Spain. Avai
Amundsen, C., Weston, C., & McAlpine, L.
analysis of course content. Studies in Hi
Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of m
Baugh, N. G., & Mellott, K. G. (1998). Clinic
experiences. Journal of Nursing Educatio
Beitz, J. M. (1998). Concept mapping: Navi
Biggs, J. (1987). Student approaches to lear
Educational Research (ACER).
Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Te
Development, 18( 1), 57-75.
Biktimirov, E. N., & Nilson, L. B. (2003). M
ductory FINANCE. Journal of Education f
Biktimirov, E. N., & Nilson, L. B. (2006). Show
finance course. Journal of Financial Edu
Buzan, T. (1974). Using both sides of your
Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2000). The mind m
Cañas, A. J., Hill, G., Carff, R., Suri, N.
modellign and sharing environment. In
maps theory, methodology, technology: F
pp. 125-133). Pamplona, Spain: Universida
Chei-Chang, C. (2008). The effect of concep
Innovations in Education and Teaching In
Concept Map. (2010). Retrieved 8/3/2010, W
Concept_map&oldid= 1 39 1 67 845 .
Cowan, N. (2000). The magical number four
capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87-185.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, II, 671-684.
Daley, B. J. (2004). Using concept maps in qualitative research. Paper presented at the First International
Conference on Concept Mapping, Pamploma, Spain. Available from http://cmc.ihmc.us/papers/
cmc2004-060.pdf.
Davies, W. M. (2009a). Computer-assisted argument mapping: A rationale approach. Higher Education,
58(6), 799-820.
Davies, W. M. (2009b). Not quite right: Teaching students how to make better arguments. Teaching in
Higher Education, 13(3), 327-340.
Edmonson, K. M. (1993, April 12-16). Concept mapping for the development of medical curricula. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, Georgia.
Available from.
Entwistle, N. (1981). Styles of learning and teaching; an integrated outline of educational psychology for
students, teachers and lecturers. Chichester: John Wiley.
Eppler, M. J. (2006). A comparison between concept maps, mind maps, conceptual diagrams, and visual
metaphors as complementary tools for knowledge construction and sharing. Information Visualization,
5, 202-210.
Eriksson, L. T., & Hauer, A. M. (2004). Mind map marketing: A creative approach in developing marketing
skills. Journal of Marketing Education, 26(2), 174-187.
Farrand, P., Hussain, F., & Hennessy, E. (2002a). The efficacy of "mind map" study technique. Medical
Education, 36(May), 426-43 1 .
Farrand, P., Hussain, F., & Hennessy, E. (2002b). The efficacy of the 'mind map' study technique. Medical
Education , 36(5), 426-431.
Gouveia, V., & Valadares, J. (2004). Concept maps and the didactic role of assessment. Paper presented at
the First International Conference on Concept Mapping.
Harreil, M. (2008). iLogos. Retrieved 7/1 1/08, from http://www.phil.cmu.edu/projects/argument_mapping/.
Harrell, M. (2011). Argument diagramming and critical thinking in introductory philosophy. Higher Edu-
cation Research and Development, forthcoming.
Hay, D., Kinchin, I., & Lygo-Baker, S. (2008). Making learning visible: The role of concept mapping in
higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 33(3), 295-3 1 1 .
Hay, D., Wells, H., & Kinchin, I. (Forthcoming). Using concept maps to measure learning quality. Higher
Education.

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 300 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301

Hoffman, E., Trott, J., & Neely, K. P. (2002

Amercian Journal of Obstetrics and Gyne
Horn, R. E. (1998). Mapping great debates: Ca
Irvine, H., Cooper, K., & Jones, G. (2005,
learning in a financial accounting subject
Sydney, NSW. Available from.
Jackson, K., & Trochim, W. (2002). Concept
ended survey responses. Organizational R
Jarvis, P. (1992). Paradoxes of learning. San
Jonassen, D. H., Reeves, T. C., Hong, N., Ha
learning and assessment tools. Journal of
Kinchin, I. M. (2000). Concept mapping in b
Kinchin, I. (2001). If concept mapping is s
International Journal of Science Education,
King, M., & Shell, R. (2002). Teaching and eval
27(5), 214-216.
Kolb, D., & Fry, R. (1975). Towards an app
Theories of group processes. London: Wil
Kulhavy, R. W., Lee, J. B., & Caterino, L. C
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 10
Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987). Why a
Science, 7/(1), 65-100.
Leauby, B. A., & Brazina, P. (1998). Concept
Accounting Education, 76(1), 123-138.
List of Concept Mapping Software. (2008). R
index.php?title=List_of_concept_mapping_s
List of Mind Mapping Software. (2008). Retrie
title=List_of_mind_mapping_software&old
Maas, J., & Leauby, B. A. (2005). Concept ma
accounting education. Global Perspectives of Accounting Education. 2. 75-98.
Markham, K. M., Mintzes, J. J., & Jones, M. G. (1994). The concept map as a research and evaluation tool:
Further evidence of validity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 57(1), 91-101.
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1976a). On qualitative differences in learning, i-outcome and process. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11.
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1976b). On qualitative differences in learning, ii-outcome as a function of the
learner's conception of the task. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 1 15-127.
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 52(December), 715-726.
McClain, A. (1987). Improving lectures: Challenging both sides of the brain. Journal of Optometrie Edu-
cation, /^(Summer), 18-12.
McGaghie, W. C., McCrimmon, D. R., Mitchell, G., Thompson, J. A., & Ravitch, M. (2000). Quantitative
concept mapping in pulmonary physiology: Comparison of student and faculty knowledge structures.
Advances in Physiology Education, 25(1), 72-81.
Mealy, D. L., & Nist, S. L. (1989). Postsecondary teacher directed comprehension strategies. Journal of
Reading, 52(6), 484-493.
Mento, A., Martinelli, P., & Jones, R. M. (1999). Mind mapping in executive education: Applications and
outcomes. Journal of Management Development, 75(4), 390-407.
Mind Maps Made With Mind Mapping Tool. 8/3/2010, from http://www.mindmapexample.com/
samples.php.
Nassi, I., & Shneiderman, B. (1973). Flowchart techniques for structured programming. SIG PLAN Notices,
5(8).
Nettleship, J. (1992). Active learning in economics: Mind maps and wall charts. Economics, 25(Summer),
69-71.

Novak, J. D. (1981). Applying learning psychology and philosophy to biology teaching. The American
Biology Teacher, 43( 1 ), 1 2/20.
Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2006). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct them.
Technical Report IHMC Cmap Tools 2006-01 Retrieved 21/6/07, Florida Institute for Human and
Machine Cognition, from http://cmap.ihmcus/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConcept
Maps.pdf.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cornell University Press.

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 High Educ (201 1) 62:279-301 301

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes

Paivio, A. (1983). The empirical case for dual co
Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pressley, M., Van Etten, S., Yokoi, L., Freebern
studentship: A grounded theory approach. In J
in theory and practice (pp. 347-367). Mahwah
Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in highe
Rochecouste, J. (2005). Constructing taxonomi
Association for the Teaching of Academic Writ
Ruiz-Primo, M. A., & Shavelson, R. (1996). Pro
assessment. Journal of Research in Science T
Safayeni, F., Derbentseva, N., & Canas, A. J. (2005
concept maps. Journal of Research in Scienc
Schau, C., & Mattern, N. (1997). Use of map
American Statistician, 57(May), 171-175.
Schuster, P. M. (2000). Concept mapping: Reduc
Nurse Educator, 25(2), 76-81.
Schwartz, N. H. (1988). Cognitive processing ch
cational and Psychological Research, 8 , 93-1
Simon, J. (2007). concept mapping in a financia
272-308.
Slotte, V., & Lonka, K. (1999). spontaneous concept maps aiding the understanding of scientific concepts.
International Journal of Science Education, 21(5), 515-531.
Software for Mind mapping and Information Storage. (2008). Retrieved 30th October, from
http://www.mind-mapping.org/.
Trochim, W. (1989). An introduction to concept mapping for planning and evaluation. Evaluation and
Program Planning, 12, 1-16.
Tufte, E. R. (1983). The visual display of quantitative information (2nd ed. ed.). Cheshire, CT: Graphics
Press.
Twardy, C. (2004). Argument maps improve critical thinking. Teaching Philosophy, 27(2), 95-116.
van der Laan, S., & Dean, G. (2006). Assessment to Encourage Meaningful Learning in Groups: Concept
Mapping,. NZ: AAFANZ SIG Wellington.
van Gelder, T. (2001). How to improve critical thinking using educational technology. Paper presented at the
Meeting at the Crossroads: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for
Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, University of Melbourne. Available from.
van Gelder, T. (2007). The rationale for Rationale™. Law, Probability and Risk, 6, 23-42.
van Gelder, T., Bissett, M., & Cumming, G. (2004). Enhancing expertise in informal reasoning. Canadian
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 142-152.
Vekiri, I. (2002). What is the value of graphical displays in learning? Educational Psychology Review,
14(3), 261-312.
Walker, J., & King, P. (2002). Concept mapping as a form of student assessment and instruction. Paper
presented at the 2002 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference and Exposition.
Available from.
West, D. C., Pomeroy, J. R., & Park, J. K. (2000). Critical thinking in graduate medical education: A role for
concept mapping assessment. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(9), 1 105-1 1 10.
Wilkes, L., Cooper, K., Lewin, J., & Batts, J. (1999). Concept mapping: Promoting science learning in bn
learners in Australia. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 50(1), 37-44.
Winn, W. (1991). Learning from maps and diagrams. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 21 1-247.
Zeilik, M. (nd). Classroom assessment techniques: Concept mapping. Retrieved 8/3/2010, from http://
www.flaguide.org/cat/conmap/conmap 1 .php.

â Springer

This content downloaded from

152.59.71.82 on Fri, 11 Oct 2024 18:08:48 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms