REAL NUMBERS

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. Th e Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every composite number can be expressed (factorised)

as a product of primes, and this factorisation is unique except for the order in which the prime
factors occur.
2. Every composite number can be uniquely expressed as the product of powers of primes in
ascending or descending order.
3. Let a be a positive integer and p be a prime number such that p I a2, then pl a
4. There are infinitely many positive primes.
5. Every positive integer different from 1 can be expressed as a product of non-negative power of
2 and an odd number.
6. A positive integer n is prime, if it is not divisibk by any prime less than or equal to ✓n.

7. If pis a positive prime, then ✓P is an irrational number. For example, .J2, .J3, Js, ..ff, .JIT etc.
are irrational numbers.
 POLYNOMIALS

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. Let x be a variable, 11 be a positive integer and a0 , a 1, a2 , .. . , a,. be constants (rr.11 numtx-rs).

Then, f (x) = a,. x" + a,._1 x"- 1 + .. . + a 1 x + a0 , is called a polynomial in variable x.
2. The exponent of the highest degree term in a polynomial is known as its degree.
A polynomial of degree Ois called a constant polynomial.
A polynomial of degree 1, 2 or 3 is called a linear polynomial, a quadratic polynomi,11 or,, cubic
polynomial respectively.
Following are the forms of various degree polynomials.
Degree Name of the polynomial Form of the polynomial
,__O Constant polynomial f (x) = a, a is a constant
~1 Linear polynomial f (x) = ax+ b, a* 0
'2 Quadratic polynomial J(x) = nx 2 +bx+ e, a* 0

"'
'{
Cubic polynomial

Biquadratic polynomial
f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 +ex+ d, a* 0

f(x)=nx 4 +bx3 +ex2 +dx+e, n.cO

3. If f(x) is a polynomial and a. is any real number, then the real number obtained by replacing x by
a. inf(x) is known as the value of f(x) at x =a.and is denoted by ft.a).
4. A real number a. is a zero of a polynomialfi.x), if ft.a)= 0.
5. A polynomial of degree n can have at most n real zeros.
6. Geometrically the zeros of a polynomial fi.x) are the x-coordinates of the points where the
graph y = J(x) intersects x-axis.

7. If a. and 13 are the zeros of a quadratic polynomial J(x) = ax 2 +bx+ e, then

a. + l3 = -~ = Coefficient of x , a.l3 =E_ = Constant term
a Coefficient of x 2 a Coefficient of x 2
Y If a, 13, y are the zeros of a cubic polynomial /(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 +ex+ d, then
2
a + l3 + y = _! = Coefficient of x
a Coefficient of x 3
A. A. c Coefficient of x A. d Constant term
a..,+ ...,y + ya =- =--------:- a....,y = - - =-
a Coefficient of x3 ' Coefficient of x 3
I A. Coefficient of x
b
3
a
If~, 13, y, ~ are the zeros of a biquadratic polynomial /(x) = ax 4 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e, then
~
a + ..., + Y+ = --; = - Coefficient of x 4

2.1
 ◄
2.2 MATHEMATICS-X

I) ~ c Coefficient of x
2
((l\ ~1
',) ( ,:,)
) y + ll + a, + yu =- = - - - - - --4
a Coefficient of x
"»., · ~ A ~ d Coefficient of x e Constant terms
( a+l-¾'yu+a,.,(y+u) = - - = - - - - ----,- 4
,a.py5=-= . . 4
a Coefficient of x a Coeffiaent of x
lf_flx) is a polynomial and g(x) is a non-zero polynomial, then there exist two polynomials q(x)
and r(x) such that f (x) = g(x) x q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = O or degree r(x) < degree g(x). This
is known as the division algorithm.
11. A quadratic polynomial whose zeros are reciprocal of the zeros of a given quadratic
polynomial can be obtain by interchanging the coefficient of x2 and constant term.
12. A quadratic polynomial whose zeros are negative of the zeros of a given quadratic polynomial
can be obtained by changing the sign of coefficient of first degree term.
C-HAPTE"R

PAIR OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. A pair of linear equations in two variables x and y can be represented algebraically as follows:
a1x + btY + c1 =0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,

w h e re a1, a2, b1, b2, C1, C2 a re real numbers such that a / + b/ ~ 0, 11,/ + ii/ ~ 0.

2. Graph ically or geometrically a pair of li near equations

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2 x + b2y + c2 = 0
in two va riables re presents a pair of s traight lines whi ch a re
111
· tersec t·m g, 1' f -a1
(I.) m ~ -bi (1·1·) par.1 II l' I, ·f
1 _j. = -ti, ... c, (·11· 1·) co1nc11
.,.. ~ · • ..:i cnt, ·1f a, =-bi =-Ci
-
a2 l12 "2 #1! Cz il2 b2 c2
3. To solve a pa ir of linear equatio ns in two vari.1 bll'S by G raphical m ethod, we firs t draw the lines
represented by them.
(i) If the pair of lines intersect a t a point, then we s.1 y that the pair is consis tent and the
coordinates of the point pro\' id e us the un ique solution.
(ii) If the pair of lines a re para lid, th~n the p.1ir has no solution and is called inconsis tent pair
of equations.
(iii) If the pair of lines are coincident, then it has in finitely ma ny solutions - each poi nt on the
line being a solution. In this case, we sa y that the pair of linea r equations is consistent
with infinitely many solutions.

If a1x + b1Y + C1 = O 1s
· a pair
· o f li near equations
· · bles x an d y su ch th a t
· two vana
m
a2x + b2Y + C2 =O
(i) !2. * ~. then the pair of linear equations is consistent w ith a unique solution.
a2 b2
(ii) !2. = ~ * El, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
(iii) -a1 -_ -bi -_ -
C1
, then the pair of linear equations is consistent wi th in f inite Iy many
a2 b2 c2

solutions.
CHAPTER

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial. The general form of a quadratic
polynomial is ax 2 +bx+ c, where a, b, care real numbers such that a * 0 and xis a real variable.

2. If p (x) = ax 2 +bx=+ c, a* 0 is a quadratic polynomial and a is a real number, then

p (a)= aa 2 + ba + c is known as the value of the quadratic polynomial p (x).
2
3. A real number ex. is said to be a zero of the quadratic polynomial p (x) = ax +bx+ c, if
p(a)=O.

4. If p (x) = ax 2 +bx+ c is a quadratic polynomial, then p (x) = 0 i.e., ax 2 +bx+ c = O, a-:;; O is

called a quadratic equation.
2
5. A real number a is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax +bx+ c = 0, if
aa2 + ba + c = 0.
In other words, a is a root of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 if and only if a is a zero of the polynomial
p (x) = ax 2 +bx+ c.
6. If ax 2 +bx+ c, a * 0 is factorizable into a product of two linear factors, then the roots of the

quadratic equation ax2 +bx+ c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.

7. The real roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 +bx+ c = 0, a* 0 can be found by using the

- b + ✓b 2 - 4ac 2
quadratic formula - , provided that b - 4ac ~ 0.
2a

b C
8. If a, p are roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 +bx+ c = 0, then a+~= --
a and a.~=-.
a

9. Nature of the roots of quadratic equation ax 2 +bx+ c = 0, a * 0 depends upon the value of
D = b2 - 4ac, which is known as the discriminate of the quadratic equation.

10. The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx+ c =0, a * 0 has:

2
(i) two distinct real roots, if D = b - 4ac > 0
2
(ii) two equal roots i.e. coincident real roots, if D = b - 4ac = 0
2
(iii) no real roots, if D = b - 4ac < O.
2
11. The quadratic equation having a and P as its roots is x - (a + P) x + ap = 0

or, r2 - (Sum of the roots) " + Product of roots • 0.

4.1
 5
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

.-\ St''l\H'lh' t' is ,m ,\1'1\ \1\ ~t' nwnt nf in n ddinilc o rd l'r.
m11nbt'r s 11r objt•t·ls

• :\ St',p 1t'th "\' 111• 11:. , 11_1 , ... , 11,, , ... is t·n lkd nn nrithnw t k progres s ion,
if lhcrc ex is ts a con s t,rnt d s uch
th.,t ,1:_ - 111 = d , ,1_1 - 11:. = d , 11-1 - 11,1 = d, ... , 11,, 11 - 11,, = d nnd soon .
Tlw t\,nst.mt ' ,f' is c.,lkd tlw cnmmon diffL•n•n cc .
.• lt ',1' is lht' fi rs t lt' rm ,rnd ' d' the commo n diffe ren ce of on AP, then the A.P. is
11, ,1 + d, 11 + 2d, a + 3d, 11 + 4d, ...

.-\st•qu ent~ 11 1, 11 2 , 113 , ... , 11,, , .. . isnn AP, if n,,+1 - n,, is indepen d entofn .
n,,, .. . is an AP, if and only if its n term a,, is a linear express ion inn and
th
:- A St' qul:'nt.' t' 11 1, 11 2 , ,13 , .. .,

in such .1 c,1se the caefficie nt of II is the common differen ce.

i.e. 11 1, 11::i , llJ , ... , is an AP with common differen ce 'A' if and only if a,, = An+ B.
n,, , ......
The 11
th
term n,, of an A.P. with first term 'a' and common differen ce 'd' is given by
a,, =a+ (n - 1) d.
in the AP,
- Let there be an A.P. with first term 'a' and common differen ced. If there are m terms
then
th
11 th term from the end = (m -11 + l) term from the beginni ng =a+ (m - n) d
Also,
nth term from the end = Last term+ (n -1) (-d) =1- (n -1) d,
where l denotes the last term.

8. Various terms is an A.P. can be chosen in the followin g manner.

Number of terms Terms Common difference
3 a-d,a,a +d d

4 a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d 2d

5 a - 2d, a - d, a, a+ d, a+ 2d d

6 a-5~a- 3~a+~ a+3~a +5d 2d

9. The sum ton terms of an A.P. with first term 'a' and common differen ce
'd' is given by

Sn= !!.{2a +(n-l)d }

2

Also, Sn =!!.{a+ l},wher el=last term =a+(n -l)d

2
their n th terms,
IO. If the ratio of the sums of n terms of two AP's is given, then to find the ratio of
we replace n by (2n - 1) in tpe ratio of the sums of n terms.
2
11. A sequenc e is an y ii the sum ofits n terms is of the form An + Bn, where A, B
Qr\ d ifferenc e is 2A.
12. on differen ce 'd', then aP - aq = (p - q) d.
 5.2 MAT HEN IAT ICS- X

n (n + 1) . n (n + 1)
13. The sum of first ~ natu ral num bers is
1.e. 1 + 2 + 3 + · ·· + n =
2
2
14 The sum of first n odd natu ral num bers is n 2 i.e. 2
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) =n
15. The sum of first n even natu ral num ber is
n (n + 1)
i.e. 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2n = 2 (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n) = 2n (n
= n (n + 1).
+ l)
16 In a finite AP the sum of the term s equi dista 2
nt from the beg inni ng and the end is alw ays sam
and is equa l to the sum of its first and the last term e
.
17 If Sn deno tes the sum of n term s of an AP
with com mon diffe renc e d, then
an = Sn - Sn-I and d = Sn -2Sn- I + sn-2
 CO-ORDINATE GE OM ET RY

AE
REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMUL
s
1. The absd ssa and ordinate of a give n poin
t are the dis tances of the poin t from y-ax is and x-axi
resr t:>ctin :'ly .
the form (x, 0).
., The COL)r dina tes of any poin t on x-axis are of
the form (0, y) .
~- The coord inates of any poin t on y-axis are of
, y ) is give n by PQ = ✓(x2
2
- Xi ) + (y 2 - Yi l
•. The dista nce betw een poin ts P (xi, Yi) and Q (x2 2
2
0) is give n by OP= ✓x + y2 .
:,. Dista nce of a poin t P (x, y) from the origi n O (0,
sare lylan dl xi respective ly.
t,. The dista nces ofth epoi nt P(x, y) from xand yaxe
of poin ts P (x 1, Yi) and Q(x2 , y 2 ) inter nally
- The coord inate s of the poin t whic h divid es the join
in the ratio m: n are
nu2 + nxi , my2 + ny1 ) •
( m+n m+n
8. The coor dinat es of the mid- poin t of the line
segm ent joini ng the poin ts P(x1 , y 1 ) and Q(x2, Y2)
Xi + X2 Y1 + Y2)
are ( 2 .
, 2

9. Poin t P(x, y) divid es the line segm ent

joini ng poin ts A(x1 ,y1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio
x1 -x:x -x2 or Y1 -y:y -Y2 ·
ng poin ts A(x1 ,y1 ) and B(x 2 ,y2 ) in the ratio
10. (i) The x-axis divid es the line segm ent joini
-Yi :y2 ·
(ii) The y-axi s divid es the line segm ent joini
ng poin ts A (x 1 , y1 ) and B (x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio

-X1 : X2.
ts
11. If poin t P(x1 ,y1 ) lies on the line segm ent
joini ng the poin ts A(x2 , y2 ) and B (x 3 , y 3 ) i.e. poin
X1 -X2 Y1 -y2
P, A, B are colli near, then x1 - x 3 = y1- y3 A

12. If D (x1 , y 1 ), E (x 2 , y 2 ), F (x3 , y 3 ) are the

coor dinat es of the mid-
. Then , the E (x2,Y2)
poin ts of sides BC, CA and AB respe ctive ly of MBC F (x3,Y3)

coor dinat es of its verti ces are

A(x2 +x3 -xi, Y2 + Y3 -Yi) , B (x3 + X1 -X2, Y3 + Yt -y2) B (x 1,Y1) C

Fig. 6.1
and C(x1 +x2 -x3,Y1 +Y2 -y3)
ces in orde r of a para llelo gram ABCD, then the
13. If A(x1,y1),B(x2,y2),C(. r3,y3)a re three verti
Yt + Y3 - Y2) •
coor dinat es of its fourth vertex D are (%1 + %3 - %2,
1.1
 j
6.2

14• The coordinates of the centroid of triangle formed by the _roints A(x, . _v1l.F(x>.'-:) J:;J
C(x3, y3 ) are
X1 + X2 + X3 Yt + Y2 + Y3)
( 3 I 3 •
IS. If A(xi,y1),B(x2,Y2), C(x3 ,y3 ) and D(x4 ,y4 ) are vertices taken in order c,f .1 f'H,1 lld~~rJ rn.'
rhombus/rectangle/square, then x 1 + x 3 = x 2 + x 4 , y1 + y3 =Yi+ Y-1
CHAPTER

TRIANGLES

REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. Two figures ha~ing the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar figure s.
2. All congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. Two polygons having the same number of sides are similar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are proportional (i.e., in the same ratio).
4. If a line is drawn parallel to one s ide of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct
points, th en the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same rati o, then the line is parallel to the third
side of the triangle.
,,. Th e internal bi sector of an angle of a triangle d ivides the opposite s ide internally in the ratio of
the sides containing the angle.
7. If a line through one vertex of a triangle d ivides the opposi te side in the ratio of other two sides,
then the line bisects the angle at th e ve rt ex.
8. The external bisector of an angle of a trian gle divides the opposite s ide extemil lly in the ratio of
the sides containing the angle.
lJ . The line drawn from the mid-point of cine side of a triangle i.s p.:irc1llcl of another side bisects the
third side.
10 . The line joining the mid-points of two sides of a tria ng le is parallel to the third side.
11. The diagonals of a trapezium divide each other proportionally.
'12 . If the diagonals of a quadrilateral divide each other proportionally, then it is a trapezium.
13. Any line parallel to the parallel sides of a trapezium divides the non-parallel sides
proportionally.
14. If three or more parallel lines are intersected by two transversals, then the intercepts made by
them on the transversals are proportional.
15. AAA Similarity criterion: If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then the triangles
are similar.
lo. AA Similarity criterion: If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to
the two angles of the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
17. SSS Similarity criterion: If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then the
two triangles are similar.
18. SAS Similarity criterion: If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and
the sides including these angles are in the same ratio, then the triangles are similar.
lQ . RHS Similarity criterion: If in two triangles, hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are
proportional to the hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle, then t:J::ie two triangles are
similar.
:!O. If two triangles are equiangular, then
(i) the ratio of the rorresponding sides is same as the ratio of conesponding medians.
(ii) the ratio of the corresponding sides is same as the ratio of the rorresponding angle bisector
segments.
(iii) the ratio of the corresponding sides is same as the ratio of the oorresponding altitudes.
21 . If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the bisectors of these
equal angles divide tlM:opposite lidein the same ratio, then the triangles are similar.
7.1
 MATH EMATJCS-X
7.2
'd f triangle are respectively proportional
. . of these s1 es o a h . I
If two ~c;;idec.~ and a mC'diMt h1sectmg one
d'
. f
median o ano
ther triangle then t e tnang es are
'
to the hvo sides and the rorrespon m g
similar. . . . d .d of a triangle are resp e ctively proportional to
th th 5
If two sides and a median bisccti~g e ~r ~ e ther triangle, then the triangles are similar.
the n,·o sides and the correspond mg median ° ano
~ABC - ~DEF, then
AR FC AC Perimeter of MBC
DE= EF = DF = Perimeter of 6DEF
If a rerpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right a~gle of a ~ig~t triangle to the
hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the whole.
triangle and also to each other.
Pythagoras Theorem: In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides.
Converse ofPythagoras Theorem: If in a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides, then the angle opposite to first side is a right angle.
1n any triangle, th ~ sum of the squares of any two sides is equal to twice the square of half of the
third side together wi th the twice of the square of the median which bisects the third side.
Three times the sum of the squares of the sides of a triangle is equal to four times the sum of the
squares of the medians of the triangle.
Three times the square of any side of an equilateral triangle is A
equal to four times the square of the altitude. /
In a triangle perpendirular drawn from the vertex of right angle /
to the hypotenuse divides the triangle into two similar triangle
i.e . .MDB - &CDA
Also, AD2 = BD x CD i.e. the square of the perpendicular is equal -- _ _ _ _ _ __
to the product of projections of other two sides on the B D C
hypotenuse (Fig. 7.1 ). Fig. 7.1
 CIRCLES
REVISION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE
1. Tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle in exactly one point.
2. A tangent to a circle is perpendicu lar to the radius through the point of contact.
3. A line drawn through the end-points of a radius and perpendicu lar to it is a tangent to the circle.
4. The length of the segment of the tangent between the point and the given point of contact with
the circle is called the length of the tangent from the point to the circle .
.,, The lengths of two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.
6. Two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle subtend equal angles at the centre of the
circle.
i . Two tangents drawn from an external point P to a circle are equally inclined to the segment
joining the centre to the point P.
8. If AP and AQ are two tangents drawn from an external point A to a circle, then the centre of the
circle lies on the bisector of LPAQ.
9. If a circle touches side BC of MBC at P and sides AB and AC produced at Q and R respectively ,
then
(i) AQ = AR = ½(Perimeter of ~ABC) (ii) AB+ BP = AC+ CP

10. If the incircle of MBC touches sides BC, CA and AB at D, E and F respectively , then

(l') AF+BD+ CE = AE + BF + CD = .!.

2
(Perimeter of MBC) A

(ii) AB + CD = AC + BD

(iii) Area (AABC) .,. ½(Perimeter of AABC) r

(iv) AF = AE = s - a, BF - BD - s - b, CE - CD - s - CI B C
. rim ter of AABC, ,r • BC, b • CA and c • AB.
where s 1s semi-pe e
11 ....,. odw at the t C, then the common tangent at C bisects the common
· lftwocircle stoucheay.• r fJl,9.3)
tangent to the two
 MATJ fE}..1,4,
11~).
8.2 ~
A p

.0
!'.I

D A C
Fig. 8.4
Fig. 8 3
quadri lateral ABCD, then AB + CD == BC+ D,1_
ii:;:_ lf a circle h,uches all the four sides of a
(See Fig. 8.4 )
AB+ CD + EF == BC+ DE+ FA. (See Fig. 8.5)
1:\ .
If a hexaso n arcum sm•t:-es a Cirde' then
E S D

:/ "~ R

F I
O \r C p p

~ / 0
A p B Fig. 8.6
85 Fig. 8.7
Fig. - . . th
14. lf AB and CD are commo n tangen ts to two circles of unequa l ra d n, en
AB CD (Se F' 8
= · e ig..6)
15 If from an externa l point P, two tangen ts PA and PB are drawn to the circle with centre
0, then
OP is the perpen dicular bisecto r of AB. (See Fig. 8.7)
T angenl lines at the end points of a diamet er of~ circle are paralle l.
17. In two concen tric circles, a chord of larger circle which is tangen
t to smalle r circle is bisected at
the point of contact.
16 If a, b, c are the sid es of a right triangle with
hypote nuse c, then the radius r of the incircle is
given by r - s - c, where s is the semi-p erimete r of the triangl e.
19. A paralle logram circum scribin
g a circle is a rhombu s i.e. if all the sides of a paralle logram touch
a circle, then it is a rhomb us.
2Q. The angle betwee n two tangen !s drawn from an externa l point to a circle
is supple mentar y_to
the angle subten ded by the line segmen ts joining the points of contac
LAOB + LAPB = 180°. (See Fig. 8.8) t at the centre 1.e.

21. If two tangen ts TP and TQ are drawn to Fig.8.9

· "
1. a arc 1e With
( ) LPTQ =2 LOPQ the••
(ii) LPTO "' LOP ~entre O from an extern al point ,,. J,
22. If a circle touche s the sides of a quadri"lat Q (See Fag · 8 9) ··
· ·
subten ded at the centre by a pair of oppos·t era1 ABCD .
1he -anSle5
. at P, Q, R S respec ti I then ··
. . l e sades are ,
23. If~ chord 1s drawn ~oug ht~ point of contact ve y,
supple mentar y. :: : ·di
this chord makes with the given tangen t of a tangen a·
. t to a cl th th ·ng· Jes whi
d lte
corresp on mg a mate segments i e /P'AB are equal
' . '- rt •L.Aoa
respect ively t r th e, en e a
f .-.ed . we
O e ang1es 0.u•• , .. ,iJ'l.
and LQAB = LACB.
CJRCl ES
8.3
th
2, . If a line is drawn rough an end point of a chord of a circle so that the angle formed with the
chord is equal to the angle subtended by the chord in the alternate segment, then the line is a
tangent to the circle. (See Fig. 8.10)

/ ~ B

c, · · 0/ ~lM
~~ ( _.f6 o
p

( ~ ,.fv >
p A Q T
Fig. 8.10 Fig. 8.11
23. If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B and PT is tangent segment, en
2 th
PA x PB= PT . (See Fig. 8.11)
 ,
I

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
REVISION OF KEV CO~ CEPTS AND -;;,RMULAE
is A..n an c;le is c(n1sidercd as the fiPure 0 l t · l l
i\e t. · \ . . _ , ll d tl C" . · ' auwu 'Y rotAling a given ray about its end ·point . ThP
n>n1lnn~ ra, 1~ lcl e 1e generatmg line 0 f ti I .. '
. . . .__ .· . .. . . 1eange. rnhg. 9.l , theinitidlposition0Ai~cal lcd
the m1hal s11..i e and the hnal post hon OB is callc • li tt,e · I s1'd e o f t h e ang 1e.
, t erm ma
C
~
ja.
1'5'
C:
..,i»
Initial side
L --- - - - ~ A B
0
Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2
• The measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.
• If ABC is a right triangle right angled at Band L BAC = 0 (see Fig. 9.2), then with reference to
anble 0, Base = AB, Perpendicular= BC and, Hypotenuse = AC . Therefore,
(i) sin 0 = Perpendicular = BC (ii) cos 0 = Base = AB
Hypotenuse AC Hypotenuse AC
Perpendicular BC cosec 0 = Hypotenuse = AC
(iii) tan e = Base = AB (iv) Perpendicular BC

Hypotenuse AC Base AB
(v) sec 0 = -.a..-=---- = - (vi) cot0 = = -
Perpendicular BC
Base AB
1 1
1 .. ) sec8 = - (iii) cot8 = - - (iv) sin 0 cosec e = 1
4. (i) cosec 0 =- - (11 cos 8 tan8
sin 8
sin 8 cos 0
1 ( vii) tan 8 (viii) cot 0 = - -
(v) cos 0sec0 = 1 (vi) tan8cot8 = = cos8 sin0
s· The trigonometric
. . . ~ Jes oo 30° 45° 60° and 90° are given in the following table.
ratios ,or ang , ' '
30° 45° 60° 90°

1 1 ..fj
Ji 1
sin0 0 2 2
1 1
fl_ 0
cos 8 1 2 72 2

1 ..fj Not defined

l
tan8 0 3
2
Ji 1
cosec 8
T3
Ji 2 Not defined
sec8
1
0
cHAP J E.R

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

REV ISIO N OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. An equa tion is calle d an iden tity if it is true for all valu
es of the varia ble (s) invo lved .
2. An equa tion invo lving trigo nom etric ratio s of an angl
e is called a trigo nom etric iden tity if it is
true for all valu es of the angl e.
3. Following are som e trigo nom etric iden tities :
(i) sin 2 8+c os2 8=1 or,1 -cos 2 8=s in2 8 or, 1-si n 2
8=c os2 8
2
(ii) 1+ta n 8 = sec 2 0 or, sec 2 0 - tan 2 0 = 1
(iii) 1 + cot 2 0 = cose c 2 0 or, cosec2 0 - cot 2 0 = 1.
(iv) sec2 0- tan 2 0 = 1
⇒ (sec0 + tan0 )(se c0-t an0) = 1
1
⇒ sec0 + tan0 = and, sec8 - tan0 = 1
sec 0 - tan 0 sec 8 + tan 8
i.e. sec0 + tan0 and sec0 -tan 0 are reciprocal of each
othe r.
(v) cosec2 0 - cot 2 0 =1
⇒ {cos ec8- cot8 ) {cosec8 + cot8 ) =1
1
cose ca + cot 9 = - - - - - - : - and, cosec8 - cot 0 -_ 1
⇒ cose c8- cot8 cosec 8 + cot 0
·1.e. cose c8+ cot8 and cose c8-c ot8 are reciprocal of
each othe r.
 HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES

REVIS ION OF KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

1. The line drawn from the eye of an observ er to a point in the object where the
person is viewin g
is called the line of sight.
2. The angle formed by the line of sight with the horizo ntal when the object is above the
horizontal level is called the angle of elevati on.
3. The angle formed by the line of sight with the horizo ntal when the
object is below the
horizontal level is called the angie of depres sion.
4. The height of an object or the distanc e betwee n distan t objects can be determ
ined with the help
of trigono metric ratios.
r

_ _ _A_rc_a_o_f .Circle
1

- Sector and~g'".••eJ.. n,.

ce of
t" w hi ch are at a co• nc,tant• distan (
)
·n
t fp C ...,
l
ith centre O ~
CIRCLE TI 1C ~C O to b ca lled a CJ rcle w
r units from a fixed poin no te d by C (O , r), 0, ·
e circle is de ,J
and radius= r units. Th o f a point which
circ le is th e lo cu s
In other words, a m a fix
r, ,••
ed pointO rcmain<,cu 5ta,,/
at its di< ,ta nc e fro
moves in such a way th
at r units .
e ce nt re an d th e co nstant distance r unit;
d th
The fixed point O is ca lle
is called its radius. ng th of boundary) o f a circle is
cal/f:d
The pe rim et er (o r le
CIRCUMFERENCE
its circumference. an d a 8
e segm en t jo inin g th e cen tre of a circle

c@
RADIUS A lin rcle.
po in t on the circle is
called a radius of the ci
e,
al of ra di us is radii. Tn the given fig ur
Plur
dii of th e circle.
OA, OB, OC are three ra
CHORD A lin e se

In th e gi ve n
gm en t joining any tw
is ca.Jled a chord of th
fig
of a circle w ith ce nt re
ur
e circle.
e,
0.
PQ
o po

, RSandAOBare th re
ints on a circle

e ch or ds ASS P
0
a
8

is
ch or d of a circ le pa ss ing through its centre
DIAMETER _A
e circle.
caJJed a di am et er of th fig ur e AOB is a
es t ch or d of a ci rcle. In th e ab ov e '
. D ia m et er is the lo ng
di am et er .
Diameter= 2 x radius. ts
e w hi ch in te rs ec ts a circle at tw o po in
~ECAHT A lin
1s called a se ca nt of
th e circle.
of th e . Je
In th e gi ve n fig ur e, lin e I is a se ca nt CJrc
. o.
wJth ce nt re
us piec f a CJ. rc1e JS .
ARC A co nt in uo e o called an arc of
th e circle.
.,,.,..-- .... '
.
In the given figure, AB Js an ar c of a circle, w ith ce nt re
/ \
/
/ I

0 de-noted b A th e . J
/ I

e re m ai ni ng pa rt of I • I
y B. Th c1rc e, I O I
, . /8
. ts BA
e d \
sh ow n by th
otted Imes, re pr es en A~

678
 Area of Circk- ' sl'((()I ' ·1 IS
' • nt , q~nwnl 67<)

LANGLE J\n nnglc s ubtl'n dl'd by '.111 '·,re n t ti1e Cl'llln • of n ci rcle i8
cENTRA 1 1 ·
•ts centra nng c.
~lied 1 . •
/ ,,---.. . ,,
c JJi the given figure of a circle with centr e o,
central a11g I.! oif
'
AB
,...-..
....----..... ,
= L.1\0 B = 0 °. /<oi) )
I

I -
00
\

If 0° < 180° then AB 1s called the minor nrc and A 8

Bif is called the 111njor arc.
SEMICIRCLE A diam eter divid es a circle into two
equal arcs. Each of these two arcs is called a
semicircle.
In the given figure of a circle with centr e O ,ACE' C

and 1fr5i.f are semic ircles .

An arc whos e lengt h is less than the arc of a semicircle is called a minor
arc.
An arc whose lengt h is more than the arc of a semicircle is called a
major arc.

SEGMENT A segm ent of a circle is the regio n boun

ded
Major
by an arc and a chord , inclu ding the arc and the chord . segment

The segm ent conta ining the mino r arc is called a O•

minor segment, while the segm ent conta ining the A------s
major segme nt. . Minor
major arc is the segment
The centre of the circle lies in the major segm ent.
SECTOR OF A CIRCLE The regio n enclo sed by an arc
of
acircle and its two boun ding radii is called a secto r
of the circle.
. In the given figure , OACB O is a secto r of the
Ctrcle with centr e 0. C
If arc AB is a mino r arc then OACB O is called the
minor sector of the circle.
.
The remai ning part of the circle is called the major sector of the circle
QUADRANT One-f ourth of a circu lar disc is called
a quadr ant. The centra l
angle of a quadr ant is 90°.
FORMULAE ON AREA OF CIRCLE, SECT OR AND SEGMENT
1. For a circle of radius r, we have 2
(i) Circu mfere nce= 21tr (ii) Area = 1tr •
2· For a semicircle of radius r, we have 1 2

(i) Perim eter= {1tr + 2r) (ii) Area = 2 1tr •

3. For a ring having outer.radius = R and inner radius = r,

1.Ve have
Area of the ring== 1t(Ra -
 SL'1.·1.,n1.t,ry --C,ch n o \ i'v,(1-' tl1 c m a tic s for C
las s 1 0

A.CB ~k
iw.s 0 o nt tir e ce 11trc of a cir cle o
-l. l d ,111 ,l r,111!-:c a11
l' l'
,t 'f li.E 't ' f radius r. Th
~i) L e ng th 2 n re
D en,
o f m in o r a rc AC B - -
- 360 ·
L en gth o f n ( 21tre ,
tajor a rc BO
A== \.21tr -
360 J c
(ii) Area of . OACBO == 1 2
nuno r sector tr e = (
360 \. :!:2_ x r a d iu s x a r c leng
th\
)
~ ( 1tr' - 1t;~~}
Area of majo
r se ctor O A D B O

(iii) Are a o f .
o r s e g m e n t A C B A - ( 1tr20 -
nun
- ( 360 :!2:_r2 s i n e \ .
Area of majo )
r segment B
DAB = l1tr 2
-(area of m
(iv) Perimete in o r segmen

5. For Rotati
r of sector O
ACBO == 2
(2r + t)1.
;;~) ·
on of the Hands
of a Clock:
(i) Angle de
scribed b y m
in u te h a n d
(i i) Angle
described b y i n 60 m i n u
t e s = 360°.
hour hand i
6. For Rotati n 12 hours
ng Wheels: = 360°.
(i) Distanc
e moved by
a w h e e l in 1
(ii) N u m b e r r o ta ti o n = it
of rotations s c ic u m f e r e n
in 1 m in u te d . ce.
7 . Touching = d
is ta n c e m o v in 1 m in u te
Circles: e --·
c ir c u m f e r e n
(i) When tw c e
o circles to u
s ta c h in te r n a ll y
d i nce b e tw [ s e e fig. (i)l
e e n th e ir c e n , th e n
(ii) ~ h e n tw tr e s = d if f e r
o circles to u e n c e o f th e ir
c h e x te r n a ll r a d ii .
distance b e tw y [ s e e fig. (i
e e n th e ir c e n i)\, th e n
tr e s = s u m o
f th e ir r a d ii
.

' ·. 0 R
.\
. .
' ',
 Volume and Surf
Areas o f ~

l
1
FORll'JUE h"'r '1 ruboid of length= I, breadth= band height= h, we have
ti) Vclume = (1 x b x h) cubic units.
{ii) Total surface area= 2(lb + bh + lh) sq units.
tiii) Litaal swface area= [2( l + b) x h] sq units.
(i\·) Diagonal= ✓12 +b 2 + h 2 units.
~Solids like ice cubes, sugar cubes, dice, etc., are in the shape of a cube.
FORMULAE For a cube having each edge = a units, we have
(i) Volume= a3 cubic units.
(ii) Total surface area= 6a 2 sq units.
(iii} lAteral surface area = 4a 2 sq units. a
(iv) Diagonal= .J3a units.
c ~ Solids like m · •
ri.:-..,_
'-Ll'-Wdr penO'ls ' easunng Jars, circular pillars1
·linde ' orcular pipes, road rollers, gas
C} rs, etc., are said to have a cylindrical shape.Ii
FORMULAE For a r d
(or length) - J cyham er of base radius= rand hei t h
- r, we ve
(i)
Volume= (1tr 2h) cubic un•ts.
(ii) Curved surfa • .
... )
(ill ce area = 21trh sq units.
Total surjac,o .
.. area= (21trh + 21tr 2 ) sq units
= 21tr(h + r) sq units.
742
 Volum(! and Sur face A
rcas of So1id.s
743
,o'II HOERSSolids like iro .
~0~~J1 hapc of ho11ow cylind n pipes, rubber tubes
~re1 crs.
~uLAE Consider a hollow cyJ' d
fO~ m er havin
external radius = , 1n tcrnal rad · g
R , h h
1
and height = h. us = r
Then, we ha ve
(i) Volume of material= (external 1
= (1tR2h vo2ume) + (internal volume)
- nr h) cubic units
2
= 1th( R - r 2 ) cubic units. ,,,,
(ii) Curved surface area of hollow cylinder
=((~xtRhernal surfacesqarea)
units
+ (internal surface area)
- + 21trh)
7t
= 21th(R + r) sq units.
(iii) Total surface area of hollow cylinder
= (curved surface area) + (area of the base rings)
= {(21tRh + 2nrh) + 2(1tR2 -1tr2)} sq units
= {21th(R +r) + 21t(R 2 -r 2)} sq units
= {21th(R + r) + 21t(R +r)(R -r)} sq units
/ = 21t(R+r)(h+R-r)squnits.
£PRE Solids like ice-cream cones, conical tents,
funnels, etc., are having the ·shape of a cone.

FORMULAE Consider a cone in which 2

base radius= r, height= hand slant height, l = ✓h +r •
2

Then, we have
2
(i) Volume of the cone= ..!..1er h cubic units.
3 2 2
(ii) Curoed surface area of the cone= 1trl = 1trJr + h sq units.
(iii) Total surfaceareaofthecone= (curved surface area)+ (area of the base)
= (1trl + 1tr 2 ) = 1tr(l + r) sq units.

sp,..<E Objects like a football, a cricket ball, etc., are

said to have the shape of a sphere.
0
r=o,ue1uLAE For a sphere of radius r, we have
(i) Volume ef the sphere= (

(ii)
!
ltl'' ) cubic units.
2
Surface area of the sphere= (41tr ) sq units.
•
v ·
 7-t4
Sl''-' nnd nry Sch ool Mathcinalic::; for C Jass 10

HE M~ ~E A pfa nc thr oug h t1_1c cen tre of a sph ere cuts it into
tw
parts. Each par t is cal led a hen 11s phe re. 0
equal
FORMULAE For a he1 nis phe re of rad ius r, we hav e
. here = 2 3 b'
(i) Volunzc of tire ltenzzsp nr cu ic unz.ts.
3
(ii) Curved su1face area of the hemisphere= (2n r 2
) sq units.

(ir Total surface area of the hemisphere= ( 3nr 2

sq units.
)

~ r - SHE LL Co nsi der a

sph eri cal she ll hav ing ext ern al radius= Rand
inte I rad ius = r. Th en, we hav e
Volunie of 1naterial = (external volume) - (internal volum
e)
= (: nR 3 - : nr 3 ) cubic uni ts
4. 3
= -1t (R -r 3 ) cubic units.
3
Chapter Objectives
This ch.Jph!r wW hdp )'uu w,d,u!,1af\d :
l,, Mnnru of Cfttnll tmdoir:y ...,, ogizoe : The Ihm, ms.•u,... of n•.,lral ,.,,,iimcy i.e. mm• ,,,..Ji,,., ,uuJ ,,..i., ..1
Jlroupt'fl data. • ' ' ..,
i,. 11w mnapt ofc-1,,tiw fmtw,,cy: Tit., "'"'"J.tiir /rffl•orcy Ji,,triwliun a11d 1,,..., todnnu n,m•l.,1;,.-fmi••""Y ntnW>.

~ Quick Review
~ Th., m ..an for gn,uped da t~ CDn be fo und by :
• Direct method : TIPS... 1'
Mean, i = ~ "'• , Lc:ur11 •·ell <Jbout d1t mellrods ,if <ukulati11g n,ea.,
"'-!. and bww whm lo us, !ht typ, ofdirrt method$.
• Assumrd moan method: , Sludy tht diffaen,es of applyi11g 1Jrithmclic mNn
for ealwlating di.ffertnl probkms.
Ml.'.tn. ; = a+ 4,J.d,
l:.t. , learn II~ sig,1/fi,011,e of al/ 1/re terms which we use
in c.alculuting med;,,,. and mmlc.
• Step-devi~tJon method :
ML!un, ;= a + ~u, xh
~ !.
~ The mod" for group,,d dab can b., found by u,ing TRICKS... / '
the formul~ : \., lf possible, co/leer some prob/mu <1nd try to Jr11w
J.-f, }n
=/+(21,-J,-J, Cumulatiw distribution, u,rd Ogive<, •o thal )VU
Mod.. i:,,u/d undmt<lnd /,ow t/,ey arr drar,,n.
',, Also lry to find 0111 tlie median for tlit given ,/,.la
H""'•
/o = Frequ1<ncy precedlns the mod.11 cl11;.s that l,as drawn /11 Ilic graph and calculate 1l1e
Ji = Frequo;>ncy of modal elnss media11 //,rough the formula and d1«k whether 1/,e
'2 • Frequency of class succe<ding the modal class <polled m«li,m is righl or ,.T011g.

•:::.~,F7i~"•
I = l ower Umit of mnti.1I d ., ss
t, = Height or the dass.

~,.aby~., "" m,m~'

Mere,
I = Lower llm.it of mt'dian class,
11 = Number of ubse:rv~llon~,
= Cumulative freque ncy L,f class preceding the m.dian class,
c.f.
f
= Fn>quency of 1ro:-di.in clas.._
/1 = Class size (assuming cl.iss me to be o!(!Ual}.
~ TI1e cumulative frequ•ncy o f a class is the frequency ,,btained by adding th-, fr€<JU<'ndes of all 1J1e cL1>,..;s
precedJng the given class.
~ We can represent a rumul.ilive frequency distribution grnphic,1lly ,,. a cumulative fr..quency curve, or an ogive
of ti~ 1...ss than type and of the more th,m type.

STATISTICS I 323
~ The median of grouped data can be obtruned graphically as the x<oordlnate of the poin: of intersection of th,..
hvo ogives for the j!;iven data.
 PROBABILITY

REVISION OF KEy CONCEPTS AND FORMULAE

• the l''\.}-"t'rimental
1n approach to probabT .
1 ity, we fmd the probabili ty of the occu rrence of an
e,·rnt t,y ·
. actually performing the expe nment a number of times and adequate record ing of the
harrening of eYent.

• In t~e theoretical approach to probability, we try to predict what will happen without actually
rerforming the experiment.

• An outcome of a random experiment is called an elementary event.

• An e,·ent associated to a random experiment is a compound event if it is obtained by combining

two or more elementary events associated to the random experiment.

· An e,·ent A associated to a random experiment is said to occur if any one of the elementary
e,·ents associated to the event A is an outcome.

An elementary ev ent is said to be favourable to a compound event A, if it satisfies the definition

of the compound event.

":. If there are n elementary events associated with a random experiment and m of them are
favourable to an event A, then the probability of happening occurrence of event A is denoted
m
by P(A) and is defined as the ratio -
n
Favourable number of elementary events
i.e. p (A)= Total number of elementary events

8 F d m experiment, we have
· or any event A associated to a ran °
(ii) p (A) = 1 - P (A)
(i) 0 ~ P (A)~ 1

9· The probability of a sure event is 1·

l . 0
O. The probability of an iJnpossible event 1s ·
1. ll the outcomes (elementary events) of an experiment is 1.
1 The sum of the probabilitie& of a

11.1