Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-022-00529-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Local topography factor for design wind speeds near and on the
escarpment with gentle slope
Abdul H. Wani1 · Rajendra K. Varma1 · Ashok K. Ahuja1

Received: 7 January 2022 / Accepted: 26 October 2022 / Published online: 8 November 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
Structural designers refer to Standards on Wind Loads for basic wind speed at a particular location while designing build-
ings and other structures against wind. These values prescribed in the standards are for almost flat or non-undulated ground.
However, if a structure is to be built on or near raised ground such as hills and escarpments, effect of local topography is
considered in the form of one of the modification factors to arrive at the design wind speed. The value of such modification
factor is again picked up by the designers from the relevant Standards on Wind Loads. However, the information available
in such standards in general and in Indian Standard on Wind Loads in particular is found to be limited and inadequate for
certain situations. An effort has, therefore, been made by the authors to carry out experimental studies to develop detailed
information about local topography factor. A model of an escarpment with gentle slope, i.e., 15° is prepared and tested in a
boundary-layer wind tunnel. Mean wind velocity profiles are measured at many locations near and on the escarpment. The
value of modification factor for local topography is then estimated from the measured values of wind velocities at different
locations. Values of local topography factor, thus, obtained experimentally are compared with those obtained following Indian
Standard recommendations. Conclusions drawn from the study indicate that recommendations given in the Indian Standard
on Wind Loads for local topography factor need to be updated for arriving at the correct values of design wind speeds for
the design of buildings and other structures near and on the escarpments.

Keywords Escarpment · Design wind speed · Modification factor · Building · Topography

Introduction at the design wind speed from basic wind speed. However,
the information available in codes of practice is found to
Standards on Wind Loads of various countries, namely be limited and does not cover many situations. In case of
American Standard (ASCE: 7-02, 2002), Australian and Indian Standard, same value of local topography factor is
New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS: 11702, 2011, British recommended for a short as well as tall structure. Its varia-
Standard (BS 6399-2, 1997), and Indian Standard (IS 875- tion along height is not recommended.
Part-3, 2015), give the basic wind speed for different regions Review of the published research work indicates that
of their respective country, which considers the general many researchers have carried out experimental studies on
ground level of site above sea level. If a structure is to be the models of hills and escarpments in the wind tunnels to
built near or on a rough terrain such as hills, valleys, cliffs, have better understanding of velocity and turbulence inten-
escarpments, or ridges, a modification factor is used to arrive sity variation along height at different locations near and on
such ground elements. The study of boundary-layer flow
* Ashok K. Ahuja over hills started in 1970’s (Deaves, 1975; Jackson & Hunt,
[email protected] 1975). Thereafter, a series of research publications came,
Abdul H. Wani which described wind tunnel studies of investigating wind
[email protected] characteristics near and on hills. It includes the notable work
Rajendra K. Varma of Deaves (1980), Britter et al. (1981) and Pearse (1982).
[email protected] Among other studies, Ferreira et al. (1991) and Ferreira et al.
(1995) carried out experimental and numerical studies on
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute two-dimensional hills. Other wind tunnel studies include the
of Technology Jammu, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
620 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

work of Kim et al. (1997), Finnigan (1988), Carpenter and estimated the variation in the value of local topography fac-
Locke (1999), Cao and Tamura (2006), Cao and Tamura tor at different locations on upstream side and downstream
(2007). Recent studies include the work of Li et al. (2017), side of the crest of the escarpment (Fig. 2) from the meas-
Hyvarinen et al. (2018), Pirooz and Flay (2018), and Sharma ured values of wind velocities along the height at different
et al (2018). Mason (1986) and Salmon et al. (1988) carried locations. Figure 3 shows the velocity probe and velocity
out field studies on wind flow over hills. Bowen and Lindley meter being used during the experimental study. Values of
(1977), Jensen and Peterson (1978), Jensen (1983), Tsai and local topography factor, thus, obtained experimentally are
Shiau (2011) carried out wind flow characteristics studies compared with those obtained following Indian Standard
experimentally on escarpments. Hu et al. (2017) carried out recommendations. However, the results for the escarpment
wind tunnel tests on the characteristics of wind fields over with a gentle slope, i.e., 15° only are reported in this paper
a simplified gorge. due to paucity of space.
It is noticed from all the above-listed research work that
whereas detailed studies have been made by the research-
ers in connection with the wind flow characteristics near Experimental details
and on hills and escarpments, no researcher has found out
or estimated the variation of local topography factor with Wind tunnel and flow characteristics
horizontal distance from crest of a hill or an escarpment as
well as height above the ground. Therefore, the authors of The experiments on the models of escarpments are carried
this paper carried out experimental study in a wind tunnel on out in the open-circuit boundary-layer wind tunnel at IIT
the models of the escarpments with varying slope from 15° Roorkee, India having a cross-sectional dimension of 2 m ×
to 90° at an interval of 15° (Fig. 1). Thereafter, the authors 2 m and length of the test section as 15 m. Vortex generators

Fig. 1  Escarpments with different slopes

Fig. 2  Locations where variation of wind velocity and turbulence intensity with height is measured on 15° slope escarpment (6 locations on
upstream side, 10 on downstream side, Total = 17 locations including crest)

13
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628 621

Fig. 3  Wind velocity measure-

ment inside the wind tunnel
using velocity meter probe; a
Upstream location, b Down-
stream location, and c Velocity
meter instrument

and barrier wall are used on the upstream end of the test sec- the mean wind velocity profile and turbulence intensity pro-
tion. Wind velocity above the tunnel floor is first measured file inside the wind tunnel at the downstream end of the
from bottom to top and then top to bottom. An average of test section, with a corresponding value of power law index
two values is taken to arrive at the value of wind velocity as 0.2. It is noticed that turbulence intensity increases as
at any height. The experiments are carried out at the free one moves down toward the floor and its value is maximum
stream mean wind velocity of about 10 m/s. Figure 4 shows (about 14%) near the floor.

Fig. 4  Wind characteristics

without escarpment

(a) mean wind velocity profile (b) turbulence intensity profile

13
622 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

Details about the model Recommendations by Indian standard

on local topography factor
A model of an escarpment with 15° slope is made of ply-
wood for the experimental study. The height of model Indian Standard on Wind Loads (IS 875-Part 3: 2015, 2015)
escarpment (H) is kept as 300 mm representing 30 m high recommends that local topography factor (k3) comes into
prototype escarpment at a scale of 1:100 (Fig. 2). Slope of play when the upwind slopes are greater than 3° on hills
the escarpment is made to be 15°. Length of the sloping and escarpments (Fig. 5). Difference between a hill and an
part of the escarpment in plan on upstream side comes out escarpment is made with the value of downwind slope. In
to be 1.12 m. case of a hill, downwind slope is greater than 3° and in case
Variation of wind velocity with height is measured at of an escarpment, it is less than 3°.
every 300 mm horizontal distance, which is equal to the Figure 5 shows the region affected by the topographical
height of the escarpment model (H), from the crest on both feature near and on top of a hill and an escarpment, wherein.
upstream and downstream sides. There are 6 locations on θs = the upwind slope,
upstream side (A, B, … F), 10 on downstream side (a, b, L = the actual length of the upwind slope,
… j), with a total of 17 locations including crest (Fig. 2 and Z = the effective height of the topography feature,
Table 1). Farthest location on upstream side i.e., point ‘F’ Le = the effective horizontal length, which is a function
lies at a distance of ‘6H’ i.e., 1.8 m from the crest and that of θs and Z,
on downstream side, i.e., point ‘j’ lies at a distance of ‘10H’, H = the height of the location under consideration above
i.e., 3 m. Foot of the escarpment falls between points ‘C’ average ground level, and.
(–3H) and ‘D’ (–4H), close to ‘D’ at a distance of 1.12 m X = the horizontal distance of the location under consid-
from the crest. eration from the crest.

Table 1  Distance of Upstream side Downstream side

measurement locations from the
crest (Ref. Figure 2) Location Distance from the Location Distance from the Location Distance from
crest (mm) crest (mm) the crest (mm)

A 300 a 300 f 1800

B 600 b 600 g 2100
C 900 c 900 h 2400
D 1200 d 1200 i 2700
E 1500 e 1500 j 3000
F 1800 –

Fig. 5  Definition of a hill and an escarpment (IS 875-Part 3:2015, 2015)

13
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628 623

As per Indian Standard (IS 875-Part 3: 2015, 2015), the (iii) H/Le and X/Le are evaluated for the location under con-
influence of the topographic feature is considered to extend sideration.
‘1.5 Le’ upwind and ‘2.5 Le’ downwind of the summit or (iv) Value of S0 is read from Fig. 6 as a function of H/Le and
crest (Fig. 5). Following steps are to be taken in evaluat- X/Le.
ing local topography factor (k 3) as per Indian Standard (v) k3 is then calculated as,
recommendations.
k3 = 1 + CS0 , (1)
(i) Le is evaluated as follows: where C is a coefficient which is a function of θ s, Z
Le = L for 3 < 𝜃s ≤ 17 ;Le = (Z∕0.3) for 𝜃s > 17◦ .
( ◦ ◦
)
and L.
(ii) C is e v a(l u a t e d a) s follows:
C = 1.2(Z∕L) for 3◦ < 𝜃s ≤ 17◦ ;
S0 is a factor which depends on H, X and Le.

C = 0.36 for 𝜃s > 17◦ .

Results and discussion

Velocity variation

As mentioned above, value of wind velocity at different

points along the height is measured at all 17 locations
(Fig. 2) using a velocity meter. Measurement points along
the height are kept close to one another near the floor of
the tunnel (Table 2). Varying value of wind velocity in m/
sec at each measurement point is recorded in the computer
for one minute duration. Mean wind velocity and turbu-
lence intensity values are then evaluated from recorded
values of wind speed data at each measurement point.
Fig. 6  Factor S0 for escarpment (IS 875-Part 3: 2015, 2015)

Table 2  Variation of mean wind Height No. escarp- Locations near and on the escarpment model
velocity with height at different above floor ment case
locations on upstream side of (mm) F E D C B A O (Crest)
the escarpment with 15° slope (–6H) (–5H) (–4H) (–3H) (–2H) (–H)
(All values are in m/sec)
5 3.6 3.1 3.9 2.4 2.6 2.0 3.2 2.4
10 5.0 4.1 4.2 3.1 3.0 4.1 4.6 6.1
20 5.2 4.6 4.5 3.5 3.9 5.7 5.4 7.9
30 5.3 4.8 4.6 3.6 4.5 6.2 6.9 8.4
40 5.9 5.7 5.2 4.2 5.2 6.7 7.6 9.5
50 6.4 6.2 5.4 4.8 5.8 7.4 8.1 9.9
60 6.7 6.2 5.9 5.1 6.2 7.6 8.5 9.9
70 6.8 6.3 6.0 5.1 6.4 7.7 8.6 10.2
80 6.9 6.6 6.3 5.3 6.6 7.8 8.7 10.4
90 7.1 6.7 6.5 5.6 6.6 8.0 8.8 10.5
100 7.2 6.8 6.5 5.9 6.7 8.0 9.0 10.5
125 7.5 7.1 6.7 6.2 6.9 8.2 9.3 11.0
150 7.8 7.3 7.1 6.4 7.3 8.5 9.4 11.1
200 8.1 7.8 7.6 6.9 7.6 8.9 9.8 11.1
250 8.4 7.9 7.8 7.5 7.9 8.9 9.9 10.8
300 8.5 8.3 8.0 7.7 8.2 9.2 10.1 10.8
350 8.6 8.3 8.2 7.9 8.4 9.2 10.3 10.8
400 8.8 8.5 8.2 8.3 8.5 9.5 10.4 10.8
450 8.9 8.5 8.5 8.3 8.7 9.6 10.4 10.7
500 9.0 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.8 9.7 10.5 10.8
550 9.2 8.9 8.7 8.8 8.9 10.1 10.6 11.0

13
624 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

Table 3  Variation of mean wind velocity with height at different locations on downstream side of the escarpment with 15° slope (All values are
in m/sec)
Height above No Esc. Case Locations on the escarpment model
floor (mm)
O a b (2H) c (3H) d (4H) e (5H) f (6H) g (7H) h (8H) i j (10H)
(Crest) (H) (9H)

5 3.6 2.4 1.3 3.9 1.4 0.8 0.7 2.2 1.1 3.8 2.2 3.4
10 5.0 6.1 4.0 4.1 3.9 2.6 2.4 4.8 2.7 5.6 4.8 4.6
20 5.2 7.9 7.6 6.2 7.1 5.8 5.9 6.9 6.4 7.1 7.0 6.1
30 5.3 8.4 8.5 7.8 8.3 7.6 7.4 7.7 7.4 7.9 8.1 7.2
40 5.9 9.5 9.7 8.9 9.1 8.5 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.7 9.0 8.0
50 6.4 9.9 9.8 9.3 9.7 9.1 8.8 8.8 8.9 9.1 9.3 8.6
60 6.7 9.9 10.0 9.7 9.8 9.2 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.5 8.9
70 6.8 10.2 10.1 9.9 9.9 9.7 9.3 9.5 9.4 9.6 9.6 9.0
80 6.9 10.4 10.3 10.0 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.7 9.1
90 7.1 10.5 10.3 10.1 10.3 9.9 9.7 9.8 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.2
100 7.2 10.5 10.5 10.2 10.3 10.0 9.9 9.9 9.8 10.0 10.2 9.4
125 7.5 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.7 10.3 10.2 10.5 10.2 10.5 10.4 9.7
150 7.8 11.1 11.0 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.6 10.4 10.6 10.6 10.3
200 8.1 11.1 11.2 11.1 11.1 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.8 10.6
250 8.4 10.8 11.2 11.1 11.1 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.8 10.9 10.9 10.9
300 8.5 10.8 11.3 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.8 11.0 11.1 11.0
350 8.6 10.8 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.0 11.0 11.2 11.0 11.2 11.1 11.1
400 8.8 10.8 11.3 11.3 11.4 11.2 11.0 11.3 11.1 11.2 11.2 11.3
450 8.9 10.7 11.5 11.5 11.4 11.2 11.2 11.3 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.3
500 9.0 10.8 11.5 11.6 11.6 11.2 11.2 11.4 11.2 11.4 11.5 11.3
550 9.2 11.0 11.7 11.6 11.7 11.4 11.4 11.6 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.4

Fig. 7  Wind velocity profiles near and on the escarpment at selected

locations (Ref. Figure 2) Fig. 8  Variation of wind velocity along the terrain length near and on
the escarpment with 15° slope at different heights above wind tunnel
floor (Location no. 7 corresponds to crest.)
Tables 2 and 3 show the variation of mean wind veloc-
ity with height at different locations on upstream side and
downstream side of the escarpment, respectively. Mini- heights where measurements are taken, are marked in
mum and maximum values of wind velocity at different bold. It is observed from the values in the tables that mini-
mum value of wind velocity occurs at –4H or –5H distance

13
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628 625

from the crest on upstream side of the escarpment at all ii. Wind velocity at all the points on the escarpment
height except the heights very close to the floor. Maximum except the lowest point (Location no. 4) is more than
values of wind velocity are noticed at the crest or close to that of no escarpment case at every corresponding
the crest on downstream side for lower part of the profiles. height.
In upper region, it is observed at H, 2H, or 3H locations. iii. Wind velocity at a given height at all the 17 locations
Velocity profiles at certain locations out of 17 locations varies along the terrain length.
are shown in Fig. 7. iv. Variation along the terrain length is large on upstream
Figure 8 shows the variation of wind velocity along side as compared to downstream side.
the terrain length near and on the escarpment at 7 differ- v. Lower portion of the flow has larger variation than
ent heights above floor namely 30, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, upper portion, i.e., effect of the escarpment is more
and 500 mm. Corresponding values of the wind velocities in the lower portion of the flow as compared to upper
at these heights for no escarpment case are also shown in portion.
the sketch with dotted lines. The following observations are vi. A location between –2H and –3H (point B and C in
made from the figure. Fig. 2) has wind velocity equal to no escarpment case
at all heights. Portion upstream of this location has
i. The effect of the presence of the escarpment is, wind velocity less than that of no escarpment case and por-
velocity near the escarpment first reduces below the tion downstream of this location has velocity greater
value of no escarpment case on upstream side and then than that of no escarpment case at all the heights.
it increases and becomes more than that of no escarp-
ment case.

Table 4  Variation of Height No escarp- Locations near and on the escarpment model
modification factor (k3) with above floor ment case
height at different locations on (mm) F E D C B A O (Crest)
upstream side of the escarpment (–6H) (–5H) (–4H) (–3H) (–2H) (–H)
with 15° slope
5 1 0.86 1.08 0.67 0.72 0.56 0.89 0.67
10 1 0.82 0.84 0.62 0.60 0.82 0.32 1.22
20 1 0.88 0.87 0.67 0.75 1.10 1.04 1.52
30 1 0.91 0.87 0.68 0.85 1.17 1.30 1.58
40 1 0.97 0.88 0.71 0.88 1.14 1.29 1.61
50 1 0.97 0.84 0.75 0.91 1.16 1.27 1.55
60 1 0.93 0.88 0.76 0.93 1.13 1.27 1.48
70 1 0.93 0.88 0.75 0.94 1.13 1.26 1.50
80 1 0.96 0.91 0.77 0.96 1.13 1.26 1.51
90 1 0.94 0.92 0.79 0.93 1.13 1.24 1.48
100 1 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.93 1.11 1.25 1.46
125 1 0.95 0.89 0.83 0.92 1.09 1.24 1.47
150 1 0.94 0.91 0.82 0.94 1.09 1.21 1.42
200 1 0.96 0.94 0.85 0.94 1.10 1.21 1.37
250 1 0.94 0.93 0.89 0.94 1.06 1.18 1.29
300 1 0.98 0.94 0.91 0.96 1.08 1.19 1.27
350 1 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.98 1.07 1.20 1.26
400 1 0.97 0.93 0.94 0.97 1.08 1.18 1.23
450 1 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.20
500 1 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.98 1.08 1.17 1.20
550 1 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.97 1.10 1.15 1.20
Avg.a 1 0.94 0.92 0.81 0.90 1.07 1.16 1.36
k3b 1 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.18
a
Experimentally obtained value
b
As per Indian Standard Recommendation

13
626 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

Table 5  Variation of modification factor (k3) with height at different locations on downstream side of the escarpment with 15° slope
Height above No Esc. Case Locations on the escarpment model
floor (mm)
O a (H) b (2H) c (3H) d (4H) e (5H) f (6H) g (7H) h (8H) i j (10H)
(Crest) (9H)

5 1 0.67 0.36 1.08 0.39 0.22 0.19 0.61 0.31 1.06 0.61 0.94
10 1 1.22 0.80 0.82 0.78 0.52 0.48 0.96 0.54 1.12 0.96 0.92
20 1 1.52 1.46 1.19 1.37 1.12 1.13 1.33 1.23 1.37 1.35 1.17
30 1 1.58 1.60 1.47 1.57 1.43 1.40 1.45 1.40 1.49 1.53 1.36
40 1 1.61 1.64 1.51 1.54 1.44 1.42 1.44 1.44 1.47 1.53 1.36
50 1 1.55 1.53 1.45 1.52 1.42 1.38 1.38 1.39 1.42 1.45 1.34
60 1 1.48 1.49 1.45 1.46 1.37 1.36 1.36 1.37 1.39 1.42 1.33
70 1 1.50 1.49 1.46 1.46 1.43 1.37 1.40 1.38 1.41 1.41 1.32
80 1 1.51 1.49 1.45 1.45 1.42 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.41 1.32
90 1 1.48 1.45 1.42 1.45 1.39 1.37 1.38 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.30
100 1 1.46 1.46 1.42 1.43 1.39 1.38 1.38 1.36 1.39 1.42 1.31
125 1 1.47 1.44 1.41 1.43 1.37 1.36 1.40 1.36 1.40 1.39 1.29
150 1 1.42 1.41 1.41 1.38 1.36 1.33 1.36 1.33 1.36 1.36 1.32
200 1 1.37 1.38 1.37 1.37 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.35 1.33 1.31
250 1 1.29 1.33 1.32 1.32 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.30
300 1 1.27 1.33 1.33 1.31 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.27 1.29 1.31 1.29
350 1 1.26 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.28 1.28 1.30 1.28 1.30 1.29 1.29
400 1 1.23 1.28 1.28 1.30 1.27 1.25 1.28 1.26 1.27 1.27 1.28
450 1 1.20 1.29 1.29 1.28 1.26 1.26 1.27 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.27
500 1 1.20 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.24 1.24 1.27 1.24 1.27 1.28 1.26
550 1 1.20 1.27 1.26 1.27 1.24 1.24 1.26 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.24
Avg.a 1 1.36 1.34 1.33 1.32 1.24 1.23 1.29 1.24 1.33 1.31 1.26
k3b 1 1.18 1.19 1.23 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.13 1.10 1.07 1.00
a
Experimentally obtained value
b
As per Indian Standard Recommendation

Local topography factor (k3)

Recommendations given in the Indian Standard on Wind

Loads regarding modification factor for the local topogra-
phy (k3) indicate that it varies along the length of the ter-
rain. However, the code is silent about its variation along
the height. The objective of the present study is to evaluate
the modification factors for local topography at different
locations near and on an escarpment experimentally and
compare its values with those evaluated as per recommen-
dations given in Indian Standard on Wind Loads. For this
purpose, values of the wind velocities obtained experimen-
tally at different heights above the floor at all 17 locations
(Tables 2 and 3) are divided by the wind velocity values at
corresponding height for no escarpment case and are listed
Fig. 9  Variation of modification factor (k3) with height at selected
in Tables 4 and 5. These ratios are indicative of modifica- locations
tion or topography factor (k3) to arrive at the wind velocity
at different locations near and on the escarpment from the
wind velocity values of no escarpment case. Last two lines local topography factor obtained experimentally with those
in Tables 4 and 5 (shown as bold), compare the values of suggested by Indian Standard.

13
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628 627

are quite greater than those obtained using Indian Standard

recommendations. Therefore, the authors of the paper arrive
at the conclusion that there is a need to modify the recom-
mendations given in the Indian Standard for local topogra-
phy factor specially at the crest and on the downwind side
of an escarpment.

Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from the present study.

Fig. 10  Variation of modification factor (k3) with distance from the
crest (X)
• When the flow approaches the foot of the escarpment, it
gradually starts to accelerate along the slope (significant
Variation of modification or topography factor (k3) along acceleration is seen at 3H, 2H and 1H upstream loca-
the height at selected seven locations namely three on tions).
upstream side, three on downstream side and the crest, is • The highest amplification factor (modification factor) of
shown in Fig. 9. It is seen from the values in the tables and 1.64 was observed at 1H downstream location at a height
the figure that modification or topography factor (k3) not of 40 mm from the local escarpment surface.
only varies with the location, but it varies with height also. • Wind velocity on top of the escarpment (i.e., downstream
Large variation with height is observed at locations close side) is more than that of no escarpment case at every
to the crest of the escarpment both on upstream and down- corresponding height.
stream side. At locations away from the crest, its variation • Variation in wind velocity along the length is large on
along the height is negligible. upstream side as compared to downstream side.
To compare the values of modification or topography • Lower portion of the flow has larger variation in wind
factor (k3), thus, obtained from the experimental data with velocity than upper portion, i.e., effect of the escarpment
those evaluated following the recommendations given by is more in the lower portion of the flow as compared to
Indian Standard, the average values of modification factor upper portion.
(k3) at different locations are evaluated from the experi- • The downstream recovery of the approaching flow does
mental data and are shown in last but one row in Tables 4 not take place even at 10H downstream location. Due to
and 5. Last row indicates the same evaluated as per Indian certain limitations in the wind tunnel, the region beyond
Standard recommendations. These values are also shown 10H downstream could not be explored.
plotted in Fig. 10. • Modification factor for local topography sees a variation
It is noticed from the values in Tables 4 and 5, and with the location as well as height above the wind tun-
Fig. 10 that values of k3 obtained experimentally as well nel floor. A significant variation with respect to height is
as, as per Indian Standard recommendations at –H and observed at locations that are close to the crest.
–2H distance from the crest on upstream side (locations A • The experimentally obtained values of modification fac-
and B in Fig. 2), where H is the height of the escarpment tor at the locations on far upstream side are lesser than
(and equal to 30 m in the present case) are quite similar in the recommended values as per Indian Standard. There
numerical values. For other locations on upstream side i.e., is a fair agreement between the two values of modifica-
from –2H to –6H (locations B–F in Fig. 2), experimentally tion factor at locations close to the crest. At locations on
obtained values of modification factor (k 3) are less than the downstream side, the experimental values are signifi-
those recommended by Indian Standard. Numerical values cantly greater than those obtained using Indian Standard
of modification factor (k3) at these locations are less than recommendations.
one indicating the fact that actual wind velocity at these • As explained in the text while discussing the values
locations are smaller than that for no escarpment case. in Tables 4 and 5, and Fig. 10, the authors of the paper
However, Indian Standard does not recommend to reduce strongly recommend that there is a need to modify the
the design wind velocity at any location than that of no recommendations given in the Indian Standard for local
escarpment case. topography factor specially at the crest and on the down-
It is further noticed from the values in Tables 4 and 5, and wind side of an escarpment.
Fig. 10 that experimentally obtained values of modification
factor (k3) at the crest and all points on downstream side

13
628 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 24:619–628

Acknowledgements The work presented in this paper is part of the Hu, P., Li, Y., Han, Y., Cai, C. S., & Xu, G. (2017). Wind tunnel tests
research work being done by the first author for his Ph.D. degree under on the characteristics of wind fields over a simplified gorge.
the supervision of the second and third authors. Advances in Structural Engineering, 20(10), 1599–1611. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1177/​13694​33216​680635
Funding The authors received part funding from IIT Jammu for the Hyvarinen, A., Lacagnina, G., & Segalini, A. (2018). A wind-tunnel
study. study of the wake development behind wind turbines over sinu-
soidal hills. Wind Energy, 21, 605–617. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​
Declarations we.​2181
IS 875 (Part 3). (2015). Design loads (other than earthquake) for build-
Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of in- ings and structures—code of practice. Part 3: Wind loads. Indian
terest. Standard; Bureau of Indian Standards.
Jackson, P. S., & Hunt, J. C. R. (1975). Turbulent wind flow over a low
hill. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 101,
929–955. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​qj.​49710​143015
Jensen, N. O. (1983). Escarpment induced flow perturbations, a com-
References parison of measurements and theory. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, 15(1983), 243–251. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
ASCE 7-02. (2002). Minimum design loads for buildings and other 10.​1016/​0167-​6105(83)​90194-0
structures. American Society of Civil Engineers. Jensen, N. O., & Peterson, E. W. (1978). On the escarpment wind pro-
AS/NZS 11702. (2011). Structural design actions. Part 2: Wind file. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 104,
actions. Australian/New Zealand Standard. 719–728. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​qj.​49710​444113
Bowen, A. J., & Lindley, D. (1977). A wind-tunnel investigation of Kim, H. G., Lee, C. M., Lim, H. C., & Kyong, N. H. (1997). An experi-
the wind speed and turbulence characteristics close to the ground mental and numerical study on the flow over two-dimensional
over various escarpment shapes. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, hills. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
12, 259–271. 66, 17–33. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S0167-​6105(97)​00007-X
Britter, R. E., Hunt, J. C. R., & Richards, K. J. (1981). Air flow over Li, Q., Maeda, T., Kamada, Y., & Yamada, K. (2017). Experimental
a two-dimensional hill: Studies of velocity speed-up, roughness investigation of flow over two- dimensional multiple hill models.
effects and turbulence. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteoro- Science of the Total Environment, 609(2017), 1075–1084. https://​
logical Society, 107, 91–110. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​qj.​49710​ doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scito​tenv.​2017.​07.​259
745106 Mason, P. J. (1986). Flow over the summit of an isolated hill. Bound-
BS 6399-2. (1997). Loading for buildings. Part 2: Code of practice ary-Layer Meteorology, 37, 385–405. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
for wind loads. British Standard, British Standards Institution. BF001​17485
Cao, S., & Tamura, T. (2006). Experimental study on roughness effects Pearse, J. R. (1982). Wind flow over conical hills in a simulated atmos-
on turbulent boundary layer flow over a two-dimensional steep pheric boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Indus-
hill. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, trial Aerodynamics, 10(1982), 303–313. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​
94, 1–19. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jweia.​2005.​10.​001 0167-​6105(82)​90004-6
Cao, S., & Tamura, T. (2007). Effects of roughness blocks on atmos- Pirooz, A. A. S., & Flay, R. G. J. (2018). Comparison of speed-up
pheric boundary layer flow over a two-dimensional low hill with/ over hills derived from wind-tunnel experiments, wind-loading
without sudden roughness change. Journal of Wind Engineering standards, and numerical modelling. Boundary-Layer Meteorol-
and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95, 679–695. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ ogy, 168, 213–246. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10546-​018-​0350-x
1016/j.​jweia.​2007.​01.​002 Salmon, J. R., Teunissen, H. W., Mickle, R. E., & Taylor, P. A. (1988).
Carpenter, P., & Locke, N. (1999). Investigation of wind speeds over The Kettles Hill Project: Field observations, wind-tunnel simula-
multiple two-dimensional hills. Journal of Wind Engineering and tions and numerical model predictions for flow over a low hill.
Industrial Aerodynamics, 83(1999), 109–120. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 43, 309–343. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/​S0167-​6105(99)​00065-3 1007/​BF001​21711
Deaves, D. M. (1975). Wind over hills: A numerical approach. Journal Sharma, P. K., Warudkar, V., & Ahmed, S. (2018). Numerical and
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1(1975/1976), experimental analysis of the flow over sinusoidal hills. Interna-
371–391. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​0167-​6105(75)​90031-8 tional Journal of Ambient Energy, 42(4), 244–250. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
Deaves, D. M. (1980). Computations of wind flow over two-dimen- 10.​1080/​01430​750.​2018.​15426​22
sional hills and embankments. Journal of Wind Engineering and Tsai, B. J., & Shiau, B. S. (2011). Experimental study on the flow char-
Industrial Aerodynamics, 6(1980), 89–111. https://​doi.​org/​10.​ acteristics for wind over a two- dimensional upwind slope escarp-
1016/​0167-​6105(80)​90024-0 ment. Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 19(5), 453–459.
Ferreira, A. D., Lopes, A. M. G., Viegas, D. X., & Sousa, A. C. M.
(1995). Experimental and numerical simulation of flow around Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
two-dimensional hills. Journal of Wind Engineering and Indus- jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
trial Aerodynamics, 54(55), 173–181. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​
0167-​6105(94)​00040-K Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds
Ferreira, A. D., Silva, M. C. G., Viegas, D. X., & Lopes, A. G. (1991). exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
Wind tunnel simulation of the flow around two- dimensional hills. author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 38, manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of
109–122. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​0167-​6105(91)​90033-S such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Finnigan, J. J. (1988). Air flow over complex terrain. In W. L. Stef-
fen & O. T. Denmead (Eds.), Flow and transport in the natural
environment: advances and applications (pp. 183–229). Springer.

13