Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code:ECE10010

MITWPU
UNIT I - A.C. CIRCUITS
Contents

A.C. Circuits: Generation of alternating EMF, Equation of

alternating quantity, waveforms, Concept of impedance,
admittance, Series RL, RC, RLC circuits, Series resonance,
Single Phase Transformer working principle. [7L]

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Alternating systems
■ Alternating current can be abbreviated to a.c., hence a system with such an
alternating current is known as an a.c. system. The curves relating current to
time are known as waveforms.

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■ An A.C. generator is an electronic device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy using the principle of electromagnetic induction.
■ AC generators work on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. When the
armature rotates between the magnet's poles upon an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. Due to this, an emf is induced in the
armature.

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
3D animation link- https://youtu.be/gQyamjPrw-U

Fig. Generation of an alternating e.m.f. Fig. EMF in rotating coil

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Explanation
■ The Figure shows a loop AB carried by a spindle DD rotated at a constant speed in an
anticlockwise direction in a uniform magnetic field due to poles NS.
■ The ends of the loop are brought out to two slip-rings C1 and C2,attached to but insulated from
DD.
■ Bearing on these rings are carbon brushes E1 and E2, which are connected to an external
resistor R.
■ Since the coil sides are moving in opposite directions, the e.m.f.s act in opposite directions, as
shown by the dot and cross notation.
■ However, they do act in the same direction around the coil so that the e.m.f. which appears at
the brushes is twice that which is induced in a coil side.

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 Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ In Fig. (a), coil AB is shown after it has rotated
through an angle θ from the horizontal
position, namely the position of zero e.m.f.
■ Suppose the peripheral velocity of each side of
the loop to be u metres per second; then at
the instant shown in Fig., this peripheral
velocity can be represented by the length of a
line AL drawn at right angles to the plane of
the loop.
■ We can resolve AL into two components, AM
and AN, perpendicular and parallel respectively
to the direction of the magnetic flux, as shown
in Fig. (b).
■ The e.m.f. generated in A is due entirely to the Fig. Instantaneous value of generated
component of the velocity perpendicular to e.m.f.
the magnetic field. (AM=usinθ)

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.

■ Hence, if B is the flux density in tesla and if l is the length in metres of each of
the parallel sides A and B of the loop,
Then, e.m.f. generated in one side of loop is

i.e. the generated e.m.f. is proportional to sin θ

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ When θ = 90°, the plane of the loop is vertical and both sides of the loop are
cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate, so that the generated e.m.f.
is then at its maximum value Em.
when θ = 90°, Em = 2Blu volts.

■ If b is the breadth of the loop in metres, and n the speed of rotation in

revolutions per second, then u is πbn metres per second and

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Generation of an alternating e.m.f.
■ If the loop is replaced by a coil of N turns in series, each turn having an area of A
square metres, maximum value of e.m.f. generated in coil is

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Instantaneous value of generated e.m.f.
■ Em - maximum value of the e.m.f.
■ e - value after the loop has rotated through an angle θ from the position of
zero e.m.f.
■ e.m.f. is positive while θ is varying between 0 and 180°.
■ It is negative while θ is varying between 180° and 360°.

Fig. Sine wave of e.m.f.

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Waveform terms and definitions
■ Waveform: The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current shown on a graph to a base of
time or rotation is a waveform.
■ Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is termed a cycle.
■ Period: The duration of one cycle is termed its period. (Cycles and periods need not commence
when a waveform is zero. Figure illustrates a variety of situations in which the cycle and period
have identical values.)
■ Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time (or position of
rotation). Instantaneous values are denoted by lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.
■ Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value is known as its
peak value.
■ Peak-to-peak value: The maximum variation between the maximum positive instantaneous
value and the maximum negative instantaneous value is the
peak-to-peak value. For a sinusoidal waveform, this is twice the peak value. The peak-to-peak
value is Epp or Vpp or Ipp.

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Definitions
■ Peak amplitude: The maximum instantaneous value measured from the mean value of a
waveform is the peak amplitude. For most sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents the
mean value is zero.
The peak amplitude is Em or Vm or Im. The peak amplitude is generally described as the
maximum value, hence the maximum voltage has the symbol Vm.
■ Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the frequency of that
quantity. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
Frequency f is related to the period T by the relation
f = 1/ T
where f is the frequency in hertz(Hz) and T is the period in seconds.

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Fig. Cycles and periods,
Effect on waveforms
by varying frequency

The diagrams assume frequencies of 1000 Hz (1 kHz), 2000 Hz (2 kHz) and 2500 Hz (2.5 kHz).

Fig. Peak values

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Example 1

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Average and r.m.s. values of sinusoidal currents and voltages

■ If Im is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally, the instantaneous value i is
represented by,
i = Im sinθ
where θ is the angle in radians from instant of zero current.
■ Therefore, total area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is,

■ Average value of current over a half-cycle is, ■ RMS value of current over a half-cycle is,

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Example 2

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Example 2

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit
■ Consider a circuit having a resistance R ohms connected across the terminals of an a.c.
generator G, as in Fig. and suppose the alternating voltage to be represented by the sine wave

■ If the value of the voltage at any instant is v volts, the value of the current at that instant is given
by

■ If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and current respectively, it follows that

---------------[1]

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit
But the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is 0.707 times the maximum value, so that
RMS value of voltage = V = 0.707Vm
and RMS value of current = I = 0.707Im
Substituting for Im and Vm in equation [1] we have

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Alternating current in a resistive circuit

Hence Ohm’s law can be applied without any modification to an

a.c. circuit possessing resistance only.
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by

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Alternating current in an inductive circuit
■ Let us consider the effect of a sinusoidal current flowing through a coil having an inductance of L
henrys and a negligible resistance, as in Fig. the e.m.f., in volts, induced in a coil is
e = L × rate of change of current in amperes per second

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 Current and voltage in an inductive circuit
■ Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through a coil having inductance L henrys and
negligible resistance to be represented by

where t is the time, in seconds, after the current has passed through zero from negative to
positive values
■ Suppose the current to increase by di amperes in dt seconds, then instantaneous value of
induced e.m.f. is

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■ "The direction of an induced current is such that it opposes the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.“
■ Induced EMF=−dΦ/dt

■ The negative sign indicates that the induced EMF opposes the
change in magnetic flux.

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Current and voltage in an inductive circuit

■ Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of the applied voltage is
equal to the induced e.m.f.,

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Current and voltage in an inductive circuit
The maximum value Vm of the applied voltage is 2πfLIm, i.e.

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Resistance and inductance in series
■ Effect of Resistance and inductance connected in series.

(a) Circuit diagram; (b) phasor diagram; (c) instantaneous phasor diagram; (d) wave diagram
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Resistance and inductance in series
The current is taken as reference since it is common to all the elements of a series circuit. The circuit voltage
may then be derived from the following relations:

Also,

• Here Z is termed the impedance of

the circuit.
• However, for any given frequency, the
impedance is constant and hence
Ohm’s law also applies to a.c. circuit
analysis.

• Impedance Symbol: Z
• Unit: ohm (Ω)
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Resistance and inductance in series
Phase angle is represented by φ.

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Example 4

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Alternating current in a capacitive circuit
■ Figure shows a capacitor C connected in series with an ammeter A across the terminals of an a.c.
source;
■ The alternating voltage applied to C is positive when it makes plate D positive relative to plate E.
■ If the capacitance is C farads, the charging current i is given by
i = C ⋅ rate of change of p.d.

Fig. 10.18 Voltage and current waveforms

for a purely capacitive circuit
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Current and voltage in a capacitive circuit
Suppose that the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to a capacitor having capacitance C
farads is represented by

If the applied voltage increases by dv volts in dt seconds

then, instantaneous value of current is

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Current and voltage in a capacitive circuit

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Example 5

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Resistance and capacitance in series
• The effect of connecting resistance and capacitance in series is illustrated in Fig.
• The current is again taken as reference.

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Resistance and capacitance in series

• The circuit voltage is derived from the following relations:

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Resistance and capacitance in series

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Example 6
■ A capacitor of 8.0 μF takes a current of 1.0 A when the alternating voltage applied across it is
230 V. Calculate:
(a) the frequency of the applied voltage;
(b) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to reduce the current in the circuit to
0.5 A at the same frequency;

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Series R-L-C circuit

■ Phase difference between the current through the circuit and

voltages across each component
■ Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance values will decide the
phase difference
■ XL= XC , When two reactances are equal, I is maximum in the circuit,
only resistive network
■ At Resonance , XL= XC at resonant frequency , fr=1/2.pi.Root(L.C)

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Alternating current in an RLC circuit

= inductive reactance − capacitive reactance

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Example 7- RL circuit
■ A coil having a resistance of 12 Ω and an inductance of 0.1 H is connected across a
100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the reactance and the impedance of the coil;
(b) the current;

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Example 7- RL circuit problem solution

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Example 8
■ A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 μF in
series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;

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Example 8

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Practice problem

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Summary of formulae

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Admittance and conductance (1/R)
■ When resistors having resistances R1, R2, etc. are in parallel, the equivalent resistance R is given by

■ In d.c. work the reciprocal of the resistance is known as conductance. It is represented by symbol
G and the unit of conductance is the siemens. Hence, if circuits having conductances G1, G2, etc.
are in parallel, the total conductance G is given by
G = G1 + G2 + . . .
■ In a.c. work the conductance is the reciprocal of the resistance only when the circuit possesses no
reactance.

■ If circuits having impedances Z1, Z2, etc. are connected in parallel across a supply voltage V, then

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 Admittance(1/Z), conductance
■ If Z is the equivalent impedance of Z1, Z2, etc. in parallel and if I is the resultant current, then,
using complex notation, we have
I = I1 + I2 + . . .

■ The reciprocal of impedance is termed admittance and is represented by the symbol Y, the unit
being again the siemens (abbreviation, S). Hence,

Y = Y1 + Y2 + . . .

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Frequency variation in a series RLC circuit
The impedance Z of this circuit is given by

The value of the reactance X of the circuit

ωL − 1/(ωC) (i.e. inductive reactance − capacitive reactance) will
depend on frequency.
For the inductive reactance:
|XL| = ωL = 2π fL
which will increase with frequency.
For the capacitive reactance:

which is largest at low frequencies.

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The resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit

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 Single Phase Transformer
A static device which transfers electrical energy from one ac
circuit to another with the desired change in voltage or current
and without any change in frequency
■ AC device
■ Voltage/current can be amplified or reduced
■ Step-up and step-down transformer
■ Step-up: Step up to higher voltages for the transmission lines.
■ Step-down: To step the voltage down to values suitable for
motors, lamps, heaters, etc.
■ Single phase transformer and three phase transformer
■ Symbol of Transformer -

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■ single-phase transformers are primarily used in residential and small-scale
commercial applications.
■ A single-phase transformer consists of two coils wound around a common iron
core at its core. These coils are known as the primary winding and the secondary
winding. When an alternating current (AC) flows through the primary winding, it
generates a magnetic field around the iron core. This magnetic field induces a
voltage in the secondary winding, allowing for the transfer of electrical energy from
the primary to the secondary circuit.

■ use silicon steel laminations 60Hz

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 Working Principal of Single Phase Transformer

• A steel core C consists of laminated sheets, about 0.35–0.7

mm thick, insulated from one another.
• Coil P is connected to the supply and is therefore termed
the primary; coil S is connected to the load and is termed
the secondary.
• The magnetic flux forms the connecting link between the
primary and secondary circuits

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 Working Principal of Single Phase Transformer
■ An alternating voltage applied to P circulates an alternating current
through P and this current produces an alternating flux in the steel core
■ If the whole of the flux produced by P passes through S, the e.m.f. induced
in each turn is the same for P and S.
■ Hence, if N1 and N2 are the number of turns on P and S respectively,

Primary and secondary power factors are nearly equal,

Current ratio is given by:

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