Topic : Basics

Unit 1 : Introduction
B.Udaya kumar
Associate Professor
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology (GIT)
Visakhapatnam – 530045
Email: [email protected]

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Circuits and Networks :
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.
• Simple electric circuit:
– Battery
– Lamp
– Connecting wires
– Applications:
• Search light
• Flash light

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• The interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements
forms an electrical network.
• If the network contains at least one closed path, it is also an
electric circuit.
• Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are circuits.

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Charge:
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists, measured in coulombs (C).
• From basic physics there are two types of charge: positive (corresponding
to a proton) and negative (corresponding to an electron)

• The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1C of charge, there are

6.24*10^18 electrons. Thus realistic or laboratory values of charges are on
the order of pC, nC, or μC
• According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in
nature are integral multiples of the electronic charge e=-1.6*10^-19
• The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric
charges in a system does not change

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• Notation:
– Fixed charge Q
– Instantaneous charge q(t)

Eg: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

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Current:
• Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes
(A)
• That is the idea of “transfer of charge” or “charge in motion”

• The current present in a discrete path, such as a metallic wire, has both a
numerical value and a direction associated with it; it is a measure of the
rate at which charge is moving past a given reference point in a specified
direction.

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• Correct notation:

• Incorrect notation:

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• Common types of current:
– direct current(dc)
– alternating current(ac)
• A direct current(dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
• An alternating current(ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
Hence it is also called sinusoidal current.
• Ac current is used in household to run the air conditioner, refrigerator,
washing machine, and other electric appliances.

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Voltage:
• Voltage(or potential difference) is the energy required to move a
unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
• Explanation:
– To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires
some work or energy transfer. This work is performed by an external
electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery as shown
in Figure. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.

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(a) Terminal A is 5 V positive with respect to terminal B

(b) Terminal B is 5 V positive with respect to terminal A

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Power & Energy:
• Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits.

• The common term signal is used for an electric quantity such as a

current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when it is
used for conveying information.

• For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an

electric device can handle and the electric energy consumed over a
certain period of time.
• Thus, power and energy calculations are also important in circuit
analysis.

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• Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W).

• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

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Passive sign convention
• It is satisfied when the current enters through the positive
terminal of an element and p=+vi. If the current enters through
the negative terminal, p=-vi.
• p=+vi or vi>0 implies that the element is absorbing power.
• p=-vi or vi<0 implies that the element is releasing or supplying
power.

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• In general, +ve Power absorbed = -ve Power supplied

• The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any

electric circuit.
• For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any
instant of time, must be zero.

• the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total
power absorbed.

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• Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across(or
the currents through) the elements of the circuit.

• There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:

1) Passive elements
Eg: R,L,C
2) Active elements
Eg: generators, batteries, op-amp

• An active element is capable of generating energy while a

passive element is not

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Sources:
• The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them

• There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.

• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit elements

• An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in

which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.

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Symbols for sources:
Independent

Dependent

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Independent Voltage source:
• An independent voltage source is characterized by a terminal
voltage which is completely independent of the current through
it.

• Eg: 5V source means the terminal voltage of the source is

always 5V regardless of the current flowing

• The independent voltage source is an ideal source and does not

represent exactly any real physical device, because the ideal
source could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy
from its terminals.

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Independent Current source:
• Similarly for an ideal independent current source ,the current
through the element is completely independent of the voltage across
it.

• Like the independent voltage source, the independent current source

is at best a reasonable approximation for a physical element.

• In theory it can deliver infinite power from its terminals because it

produces the same finite current for any voltage across it, no matter
how large that voltage may be.

• It is, however, a good approximation for many practical sources,

particularly in electronic circuits.

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Dependent sources:
• There are four possible types of dependent sources
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

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Ohm’s Law :
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage ‘v’ across a resistor is
directly proportional to the current ‘i’ flowing through
the resistor.

• the constant of proportionality for a resistor

is the resistance “R”

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• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting
the flow of electric charge.
• This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as
resistance.
• The resistance of any material with
a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length l

where ρ is known as the resistivity of

the material in ohm-meters
• Conductors - High ρ value
• Insulators - Low ρ value
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Resistance:
• The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the
flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ω).

• The direction of current i and the

polarity of voltage v must conform
with the passive sign convention.

• The value of R can range from zero to infinity

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Short circuit:
• A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching
zero

• the voltage is zero but the current could be anything

• In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed
to be a perfect conductor

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Open circuit:
• An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching
infinity

• The current is zero though the voltage could be anything

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Conductance:
• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is measured in mhos (Ʊ) or siemens (S).

• Power dissipated by the resistor is

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Note:
• The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either
current or voltage
• Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a
resistor is always positive.
• Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit. This confirms
the idea that a resistor is a passive element, incapable of generating
energy.
Limitation of Ohms’s Law:
• The resistance is a material property which can change if the internal
or external conditions of the element are altered
• Eg: if there are changes in the temperature, Resistance changes

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Nodes, Branches, and Loops:
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or
a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more
branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
• A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing
through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node
without passing through any node more than once.
• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops
will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology

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Note:
• Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a
single node and consequently carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to
the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage
across them.

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• Nodes = 3
• Branches = 5
• Loops = 3

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THANK YOU

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Topic : Kirchhoff’s Laws
Unit 1 : Introduction

B.Udaya kumar
Associate Professor
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology (GIT)
Visakhapatnam – 530045
Email: [email protected]

1
Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.

• first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav

Robert Kirchhoff

• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

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KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

• It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a

closed boundary) is zero.

• The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node

• It is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that

the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

• This law represents a mathematical statement of the fact that charge

cannot accumulate at a node. A node is not a circuit element, and it
certainly cannot store, destroy, or generate charge.

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• where N is the number of branches connected to the node and In is
the nth current entering (or leaving) the node.
• By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive,
while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice
versa.

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• KCL also applies to a closed boundary

• This may be regarded as a generalized case, because a node

may be regarded as a closed surface shrunk to a point
• In two dimensions, a closed boundary is the same as a
closed path

• the total current entering

the closed surface is equal
to the total current leaving
the surface

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• A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2,
in series unless I1=I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:
• It states that the algebraic sum of all volt-ages around a closed path
(or loop) is zero.
• Alternative form of KVL is
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on the principle of conservation of

energy.

• where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of

branches in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.

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• The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered
first as we travel around the loop
• We can start with any branch and go around the loop either
clockwise or counterclockwise

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THANK YOU

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