Define lapse rate. Write the significance of sampling in air pollution study.

Explain the properties

and significance of different oxides of nitrogen in atmosphere
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Lapse Rate:
​ The lapse rate refers to the rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in
altitude in the Earth's atmosphere. It is typically measured in degrees Celsius per
kilometer (°C/km) or Fahrenheit per thousand feet (°F/1000 ft). The lapse rate is an
essential concept in meteorology and atmospheric science. There are two main types of
lapse rates:
● Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): This is the actual rate at which the temperature
decreases with altitude in a specific location and time.
● Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): This is the rate at which unsaturated air cools
as it rises in a dry or adiabatic process, meaning no heat exchange with the
surroundings. It is approximately 9.8°C per kilometer (or 5.5°F per 1000 feet).

Understanding lapse rates is crucial for predicting atmospheric stability, cloud formation, and

weather patterns.

​ Significance of Sampling in Air Pollution Study:

● Representativeness: Air quality can vary significantly in different locations and at
different times. Sampling helps ensure that measurements accurately represent
the air quality of a specific area and time period.
● Data Accuracy: Sampling allows for the collection of accurate and reliable data
on pollutant concentrations. This data is essential for assessing compliance with
air quality standards and regulations.
● Identification of Pollution Sources: Sampling helps identify specific pollution
sources and their contributions to overall air quality. This information is crucial
for developing effective pollution control strategies.
● Health Impact Assessment: Sampling is vital for assessing the potential health
impacts of air pollution on the population. This information is essential for public
health planning and interventions.
​ Properties and Significance of Different Oxides of Nitrogen in the Atmosphere:
● Nitric Oxide (NO): NO is a colorless gas that is produced during combustion
processes, such as in vehicles and industrial facilities. It plays a role in the
formation of nitrogen dioxide and ozone. NO is a precursor to nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and contributes to air quality issues.
● Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): NO2 is a reddish-brown gas and a significant air
pollutant. It can irritate the respiratory system and contribute to the formation of
particulate matter and ground-level ozone. NO2 is a key component in the
formation of acid rain.
● Nitrous Oxide (N2O): N2O is a greenhouse gas with a long atmospheric lifetime.
While it is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere, it has a significant
impact on global warming due to its potent heat-trapping properties.
● Nitric Acid (HNO3): Nitric acid is a corrosive and reactive compound that can
contribute to the acidity of rain. It is formed through the oxidation of nitrogen
dioxide in the atmosphere.
How the physical characterises of PM is important with reference to its health impact? Classify
the PM on the basis of their mode of formation along with its physical characteristics.

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Importance of Physical Characteristics of PM in Relation to Health Impact:

The physical characteristics of particulate matter (PM) are crucial factors that influence its

behavior in the atmosphere and, consequently, its potential health impacts. Understanding these

characteristics is essential for assessing the risks associated with exposure to airborne

particles. Here's how the physical properties of PM are important in relation to health:

​ Size Distribution:
● Fine Particles (PM2.5) and Ultrafine Particles (PM0.1): These smaller particles
can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, reaching the lungs' alveolar
region. They are associated with increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, as well as other systemic health effects.
● Coarse Particles (PM10): While larger than PM2.5, these particles can still
penetrate the upper respiratory tract and contribute to respiratory issues,
especially in susceptible individuals.
​ Chemical Composition:
● Toxic Components: The presence of toxic substances such as heavy metals,
organic compounds, and combustion byproducts in PM can contribute to adverse
health effects. For example, metals like lead and arsenic can have neurotoxic
effects, while polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are known carcinogens.
● Reactive Species: Chemical reactions on the surface of PM particles can
generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative stress, inflammation,
and potential damage to cells and tissues.
​ Surface Area and Porosity:
● Adsorption of Toxic Substances: PM with larger surface areas and greater
porosity can adsorb and carry toxic substances. This enhances the potential for
these particles to induce adverse health effects upon inhalation.
​ Shape and Morphology:
● Deposition Patterns: The shape of PM particles influences their aerodynamic
properties and deposition patterns in the respiratory system. Irregularly shaped
particles may deposit more efficiently in the lungs than spherical particles of
similar size.
● Toxicity Enhancement: Certain shapes and morphologies may enhance the
toxicity of PM particles, making them more harmful to respiratory and
cardiovascular health.

Classification of PM Based on Mode of Formation:

​
​
 ​ Primary Particulate Matter (PPM):
● Direct Emissions: These particles are emitted directly into the atmosphere from
various sources without undergoing significant chemical transformations.
● Examples: Combustion-related particles (soot), dust from construction activities.
​ Secondary Particulate Matter (SPM):
● Atmospheric Reactions: These particles form in the atmosphere through
chemical reactions involving precursor gases.
● Examples: Sulfate particles (formed from sulfur dioxide), nitrate particles (formed
from nitrogen oxides), organic aerosols (formed from volatile organic
compounds).

Q3 Relative toxicity of pollutants very short

The relative toxicity of pollutants varies based on factors such as chemical nature, concentration,

exposure duration, and organism sensitivity. Heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and

certain chemicals pose higher risks. Synergistic effects, bioaccumulation, and environmental

fate contribute to overall toxicity. Understanding these factors is crucial for effective pollution

control and safeguarding human health and ecosystems.

Q 4 NAAQS of PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2 very short

NAAQS stands for National Ambient Air Quality Standards. These are regulatory standards set by

environmental agencies to limit the concentration of specific air pollutants for public health

protection.

● PM10 (Particulate Matter with diameter ≤ 10 micrometers): NAAQS is 150 µg/m³

(24-hour average).
● PM2.5 (Particulate Matter with diameter ≤ 2.5 micrometers): NAAQS is 35 µg/m³
(24-hour average).
● SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide): NAAQS is 75 ppb (1-hour average) and 0.03 ppm (annual average).
● NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide): NAAQS is 100 ppb (1-hour average) and 53 ppb (annual
average).
Q 5 Fritted absorbers and Impingers very short

Fritted Absorbers:

● Definition: Fritted absorbers are devices used in air pollution monitoring to trap and
collect airborne particles. They typically consist of a porous glass or ceramic frit through
which air is drawn, capturing particulate matter on the frit's surface.

Impingers:

● Definition: Impingers are sampling devices employed in air quality monitoring to collect
airborne contaminants, particularly gases and vapors. They consist of a liquid-filled
chamber where air is bubbled through the liquid, capturing pollutants by dissolution or
absorption in the liquid.

Q 6. Write very short note on aerosols in ambient air.

Aerosols in Ambient Air:

Aerosols in ambient air are microscopic particles or liquid droplets dispersed in the atmosphere.

Originating from natural and human activities, they vary in size and composition. Aerosols impact

air quality, climate, and human health, with fine particles posing respiratory risks. Monitoring and

regulating aerosol concentrations are essential for environmental and public health

management.